📚 Class 11 History: Chapter 1 – Writing and City Life

🌍 Introduction to Mesopotamian Civilization

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• Mesopotamia is one of the oldest civilizations in the world, situated between the rivers Tigris 🌊 and Euphrates 🌊 in modern-day Iraq.
• The term Mesopotamia means “the land between rivers” (Greek: Mesos = middle, Potamos = river).
• This region witnessed the development of urbanization, writing ✍️, and complex societies around 5000 BCE.
• The fertile plain allowed the growth of agriculture, but the region was prone to unpredictable floods 🌧️.

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🏙️ The Development of Cities and Writing

1. Evolution of Cities

Mesopotamia saw the rise of different types of cities:

• ⛪ Religious Cities: Dedicated to temple worship.
• 🏪 Commercial Cities: Centers of trade and commerce.
• 👑 Royal Cities: Political and administrative centers.

Key cities: Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Kish, and Mari.

2. Invention of Writing

• Cuneiform script: The world’s first writing system developed around 3200 BCE.
• Used for record-keeping 📊, taxes, and later for literature 📖 and legal codes ⚖️ (e.g., Hammurabi’s Code).

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👥 Social Structure in Mesopotamia

Mesopotamian society was stratified into three main social classes:

👑 Upper Class	🏬 Middle Class	🔒 Lower Class (Slaves)
Nobles, Priests, Royalty	Merchants, Traders, Artisans	Prisoners of War, Debt Slaves

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🌾 Economy and Agriculture

• The economy was primarily agrarian 🌱, relying on irrigation due to unpredictable flooding.
• Major crops: Wheat 🌾, barley 🌾, lentils 🌱, and peas 🥗.
• Animal husbandry: Domesticated animals such as cows 🐄, sheep 🐑, and goats 🐐 played a vital role.
• Trade: Mesopotamians traded grain, wool, and textiles for metals, timber, and luxury goods.

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⛪ Religion and Temples

• Polytheistic religion: Worshipped multiple gods and goddesses 🌌 (e.g., Ishtar – goddess of love, Enlil – god of storms).
• Temples (Ziggurats) were the center of city life, acting as religious and economic hubs.

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👑 Political Organization

• Mesopotamian city-states were typically governed by kings who claimed divine authority.
• Hammurabi (2067-2025 BCE): A prominent king known for his Code of Laws 📜, consisting of 282 laws covering various aspects of life.

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🌟 Achievements of Mesopotamia

1. Cuneiform Writing: Revolutionary for record-keeping, communication, and literature.
2. Mathematics ➕: Developed a sexagesimal system (based on 60).
3. Epic of Gilgamesh 📜: One of the oldest literary works narrating the adventures of Gilgamesh.
4. Urban Planning 🏙️: Cities like Uruk were built with temples, palaces, and irrigation systems.

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🗓️ Timeline of Key Events in Mesopotamian History

🕰️ Years	📅 Event
C. 7000 – 6000 BCE	Beginning of agriculture in northern Mesopotamia
C. 3200 BCE	Invention of writing (Cuneiform)
C. 2700 – 2500 BCE	Reign of early kings like Gilgamesh
C. 2600 BCE	Development of Cuneiform script
C. 2370 BCE	Rise of Sargon, King of Akkad
C. 2000 BCE	Spread of Cuneiform to Syria, Turkey, and Egypt
668-627 BCE	Rule of Assurbanipal, last great Assyrian king
331 BCE	Alexander the Great conquers Babylon
1850s	Decipherment of the Cuneiform script

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🔑 Key Terms to Remember

1. Mesopotamia: Greek for “land between two rivers.”
2. Cuneiform: The first writing system.
3. Ziggurat: Stepped temples found in Mesopotamian cities.
4. Hammurabi’s Code: The oldest known legal code.
5. Epic of Gilgamesh: A Sumerian epic about the adventures of Gilgamesh.

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🌟 Conclusion

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