Passage 1
How artefacts are identified
Processing of food required grinding equipment as well as vessels for mixing, blending and cooking. These were made of stone, metal and terracotta. This is an excerpt from one of the earliest reports on excavations at Mohenjodaro, the best-known Harappan site:
Saddle querns … are found in considerable numbers … and they seem to have been the only means in use for grinding cereals. As a rule, they were roughly made of hard, gritty, igneous rock or sandstone and mostly show signs of hard usage. As their bases are usually convex, they must have been set in the earth or in mud to prevent their rocking. Two main types have been found: those on which another smaller stone was pushed or rolled to and for, and others with which a second stone was used as a pounder, eventually making a large cavity in the nether stone. Querns of the former type were probably used solely for grain; the second type possibly only for pounding herbs and spices for making curries. In fact, stones of this latter type are dubbed “curry stones” by our workmen and our cook asked for the loan of one from the museum for use in the kitchen.
FROM ERNEST MACKAY, Further Excavations at Mohenjodaro, 1937
Questions / Answer:
Question 1: What types of materials were used for making grinding equipment and vessels for processing food in Mohenjodaro?
Answer: The materials used for making grinding equipment and vessels for processing food in Mohenjodaro were stone, metal, and terracotta.
Question 2: What were saddle querns, and how were they used for grinding cereals?
Answer: Saddle querns were grinding tools used for grinding cereals. They were roughly made of hard, gritty, igneous rock or sandstone and were set in the earth or mud to prevent rocking. There were two main types: one involved pushing or rolling another smaller stone to and for, while the other used a second stone as a pounder, eventually creating a large cavity in the nether stone. The former type was likely used solely for grain, while the latter possibly for pounding herbs and spices for making curries.
Question 3: How can archaeologists identify saddle querns in archaeological excavations?
Answer: Archaeologists can identify saddle querns in archaeological excavations by their rough construction, typically made of hard, gritty, igneous rock or sandstone. These querns often show signs of hard usage, and their bases are usually convex. The presence of these features indicates their use in grinding cereals.
Question 4: According to the passage, what were some characteristics of the querns used for pounding herbs and spices?
Answer: Querns used for pounding herbs and spices were of the second type, where a second stone was used as a pounder, eventually making a large cavity in the nether stone. These stones were referred to as “curry stones” by the workmen, and they were possibly used exclusively for pounding herbs and spices for making curries.
Question 5: What request did the cook make to the museum in the passage?
Answer: The cook requested the loan of a “curry stone” from the museum for use in the kitchen. This indicates that the stones of the second type, used for pounding herbs and spices, were actively employed in the culinary practices of the time.
- Passage 2
The most ancient system yet discovered
About the drains, Mackay noted: “It is certainly the most complete ancient system as yet discovered.” Every house was connected to the street drains. The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. In some cases, limestone was used for the covers. House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter settled while waste water flowed out into the street drains. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning. It is a wonder of archaeology that “little heaps of material, mostly sand, have frequently been found lying alongside drainage channels, which shows … that the debris was not always carted away when the drain was cleared”.
FROM ERNEST MACKAY, Early Indus Civilisation, 1948.
Drainage systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller settlements as well. At Lothal for example, while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks.
Questions / Answer:
Question 1: What did Ernest Mackay consider the drainage system at Mohenjodaro to be, and why?
Answer: Ernest Mackay considered the drainage system at Mohenjodaro to be the most complete ancient system yet discovered. This was likely due to every house being connected to street drains, the use of main channels made of bricks set in mortar, and the provision for easy cleaning with removable loose bricks covering the drains.
Question 2: What materials were commonly used in constructing the main drainage channels in Mohenjodaro, and how were they covered?
Answer: The main drainage channels in Mohenjodaro were constructed using bricks set in mortar. These channels were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. In some cases, limestone was also used for the covers.
Question 3: How did the house drain in Mohenjodaro manage solid waste and waste water?
Answer: House drains in Mohenjodaro first emptied into a sump or cesspit where solid matter settled, while waste water flowed out into the street drains. This design allowed for the separation and management of solid waste and liquid waste.
Question 4: According to the passage, what archaeological wonder is mentioned regarding the debris in the drainage channels?
Answer: The archaeological wonder mentioned in the passage is the presence of “little heaps of material, mostly sand, lying alongside drainage channels.” This indicates that debris was not always carted away when the drain was cleared, providing valuable insights into the maintenance practices of the ancient drainage system.
Question 5: Were drainage systems limited to larger cities, according to the information in the passage?
Answer: No, drainage systems were not limited to larger cities. The passage mentions that drainage systems were found not only in larger cities but also in smaller settlements. As an example, at Lothal, where houses were built of mud bricks, drains were constructed using burnt bricks.
- Passage 3
Wheeler at Harappa Early archaeologists were often driven by a sense of adventure. This is what Wheeler wrote about his experience at Harappa: It was, I recall, on a warm May night in 1944 that a four miles’ tonga-ride brought me as the newly appointed Director General of the Archaeological Survey with my local Muslim officer from a little railway-station labelled “Harappa” along a deep sand track to a small resthouse beside the moonlit mounds of the ancient site. Warned by my anxious colleague that we must start our inspection at 5.30 next morning and finish by 7.30 “after which it would be too hot”, we turned in with the dark figure of the punka-walla crouched patiently in the entrance and the night air rent by innumerable jackals in the neighbouring wilderness.
Next morning, punctually at 5.30, our little procession started out towards the sandy heaps. Within ten minutes I stopped and rubbed my eyes as I gazed upon the tallest mound, scarcely trusting my vision. Six hours later my embarrassed staff and I were still toiling with picks and knives under the blazing sun, the mad sahib (I am afraid) setting a relentless pace.
FROM R.E.M. WHEELER, My Archaeological Mission to India and Pakistan, 1976
Questions / Answer:
Question 1: What brought Wheeler to Harappa, and when did his visit take place?
Answer: Wheeler came to Harappa as the newly appointed Director General of the Archaeological Survey. His visit occurred on a warm May night in 1944.
Question 2: Describe Wheeler’s initial experience upon arriving at Harappa.
Answer: Upon arriving at Harappa, Wheeler took a four miles’ tonga-ride from a railway station labeled “Harappa” to a small resthouse beside the moonlit mounds of the ancient site. The night was filled with the sounds of jackals in the neighboring wilderness.
Question 3: What instructions did Wheeler receive from his colleague regarding the inspection of Harappa?
Answer: Wheeler’s colleague warned him that they must start the inspection at 5.30 in the morning and finish by 7.30 “after which it would be too hot” to work in the blazing sun.
Question 4: How did Wheeler and his staff spend their time at Harappa during their initial visit?
Answer: Wheeler and his staff spent six hours toiling with picks and knives under the blazing sun, inspecting and working on the tallest mound at Harappa.
Question 5: According to the passage, how does Wheeler describe his pace and approach during the archaeological work at Harappa?
Answer: Wheeler describes himself as the “mad sahib” who set a relentless pace during the archaeological work at Harappa. Despite the challenging conditions and heat, Wheeler and his staff continued their work under his determined leadership.
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