Learning Objective
- The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
- The Making of Nationalism in Europe
- The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848
- The Making of Germany and Italy
- Visualising the Nation
- Nationalism and Imperialism
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
- The French Revolution of 1789 marked the birth of nationalism, shifting power from monarchy to citizens. Ideas like “la patrie” and “le citoyen” promoted unity and equal rights.
- The National Assembly replaced the Estates General, reflecting evolving politics. Internal customs were abolished, and a standardized system was adopted for consistency. French armies, inspired by revolutionary ideals, spread nationalism abroad.
- Despite Napoleon’s rule, revolutionary principles like equality before the law were upheld. Administrative improvements facilitated business, but increased taxation and conscription led to discontent.
The Making of Nationalism in Europe
- Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons, each ruled separately. There was no shared identity or culture among them.
- The Habsburg Empire controlled Austria-Hungary, where Magyar and various dialects were spoken. Other communities also lived there, all loyal to the emperor as their only common bond.
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
- A powerful aristocracy ruled across Europe, united by lifestyle and marriage ties. They were outnumbered by the growing urban and commercial classes, who challenged their influence.
- Industrialization started later in France and parts of Germany than in England, creating new social groups like the working class and middle class. The middle class, educated and liberal, supported national unity after aristocratic privileges were removed.
What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?
- In the early 19th century, liberalism was a leading ideology in Europe, focusing on freedom and equality. It pushed for government based on people’s consent, with constitutions and parliaments.
- Initially, only property-owning men could vote, excluding women and those without property. Opposition movements fought for equal rights. Liberals also wanted to remove barriers to trade and travel.
- Before 1833, merchants faced many customs barriers and tariffs, hindering economic growth. Advocates for liberalism pushed for a unified economic territory, leading to the abolition of tariffs and fewer currencies.
A New Conservatism after 1815
- After Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, Europe shifted towards conservatism. However, conservatives didn’t want to fully return to the past. They believed modernization could strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy.
- Measures such as building a modern army and bureaucracy were seen as ways to support autocratic rule. In 1815, major European powers met in Vienna to settle Europe’s future.
- The Bourbon dynasty returned in France, and the German Confederation remained. Autocratic governments were harsh on dissent, aiming to maintain their power.
The Revolutionaries
- After 1815, liberal-nationalists faced repression, leading them to operate secretly. Being revolutionary meant opposing monarchy and fighting for freedom. Giuseppe Mazzini, born in 1807, joined the secret society Carbonari.
- Exiled in 1831 for his revolutionary activities, he believed in nations as natural units. Secret societies emerged in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland. Metternich called Mazzini the biggest threat to their social order.
The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848
- Conservative regimes tried to tighten their grip, linking liberalism and nationalism with revolutions across Europe. Metternich’s saying, “When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches a cold,” showed France’s influence.
- The Greek war for independence stirred nationalist feelings among educated Europeans. Greece had been under Ottoman rule since the fifteenth century. The war got support from Greek exiles and Westerners who admired ancient Greek culture.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
- Nationalism wasn’t just about wars; culture played a big part too. Romanticism, a cultural movement, aimed to shape nationalist feelings. Romantic artists focused on emotions and traditions rather than reason.
- They believed folk songs and poetry captured a nation’s essence. Music, like Kurpinski’s operas, symbolized nationalism through folk dances. Language was also crucial; Russian was forced on some regions. In Poland, clergy resisted by using their language, leading to punishment by Russian authorities.
Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
- In the 1830s, Europe faced tough economic times. Population grew, but jobs didn’t match up, leading to rural-urban migration and slums. Paris suffered food shortages and unemployment, sparking protests.
- The National Assembly declared a republic, giving suffrage to men and the right to work. In 1845, Silesian weavers rebelled against low wages. They marched on contractors’ homes, demanding more pay. The contractors fled but returned with the army, resulting in eleven weavers being shot.
1848: The Revolution of the Liberals
- In 1848, a revolution swept Europe, led by the middle class and fueled by the suffering of peasants and workers. Liberals and women joined forces, demanding constitutionalism and national unity. A German constitution was proposed but rejected by King Wilhelm IV of Prussia.
- Monarchs opposed the elected assembly, weakening its support. Women fought for political rights, forming associations and joining political events. However, their participation was limited. Monarchs realized concessions might halt the cycle of revolution and repression.
The Making of Germany and Italy
Germany โ Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?
- After 1848, nationalism in Europe shifted from democracy and revolution. Germany and Italy aimed for nation-states. German middle class supported nationalism, but Prussian monarchy, military, and landowners suppressed liberal attempts at unity.
- Prussia led the nationalist movement, winning wars against Austria, Denmark, and France for unification. This highlighted Prussia’s power in Germany’s nation-building. The new state focused on modernizing currency, banking, and legal systems across Germany.
Italy Unified
- Like Germany, Italy had a history of fragmentation, divided into seven states and under Habsburg rule. Italian language had regional variations. Mazzini aimed for a united Italian Republic with Young Italy.
- After failed revolutions, Sardinia-Piedmont led by King Victor Emmanuel II pursued unification through warfare. Italy offered economic and political prospects. Most Italians, with high illiteracy rates, were unaware of liberal-nationalist ideas.
The Strange Case of Britain
- Some scholars view Great Britain as the model for the nation-state, but its formation was gradual. Before the 18th century, there wasn’t a clear British nation.
- The “United Kingdom of Great Britain” mainly reflected England’s dominance over Scotland. The British parliament was mostly controlled by English members.
- Ireland was forcibly integrated in 1801. British symbols and language were promoted, while older nations were seen as secondary partners in the union.
Visualising the Nation
Depicting rulers in portraits or statues was easy. Likewise, nations were shown as personified entities, often represented by female figures like Marianne. Marianne symbolized the nation belonging to its people.
Nationalism and Imperialism
- By the mid-19th century, nationalism changed, becoming narrower in focus. The Balkans became a hotspot for nationalist tensions after 1871, with diverse geography and ethnicities.
- Different groups sought independence, leading to conflicts. Balkan states’ jealousy fueled territorial ambitions. Despite this, the idea of nation-states gained acceptance as natural and universal.
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