Learning Objective
- Why Deforestation?
- The Rise of Commercial Forestry
- Rebellion in the Forest
- Forest Transformations in Java
Why Deforestation?
“Deforestation, the disappearance of forests, has a long history. While it started centuries ago, colonial rule intensified its systematic and widespread impact.”
Land to be Improved
“During colonial rule, as population and food demand increased, peasants cleared forests to make way for commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat, and cotton. The British viewed forests as unproductive, leading to extensive deforestation between 1880 and 1920.”
Sleepers on the Tracks
- In the early nineteenth century, oak forests in England were vanishing. Search parties explored forest resources in India. Railways, crucial for colonial trade and troop movement, spread from the 1850s.
- By the 1860s, the railway network rapidly expanded, leading to deforestation as tracks crisscrossed India. Contracts were given to individuals for timber supply, and forests near railway lines began to disappear.
Plantations
“During colonial rule, large natural forests were cleared to make space for tea, coffee, and rubber plantations. The colonial government allocated vast areas to European planters at low rates for planting tea and coffee.”
The Rise of Commercial Forestry
- In the 19th century, British concerns about deforestation led to the establishment of the Indian Forest Service. Dietrich Brandis, the first Inspector General of Forests in India, recognized the need for proper forest management and conservation.
- In 1864, the Indian Forest Service was founded in Dehradun. Scientific forestry practices involved cutting down natural forests with diverse tree species. The Forest Act of 1906, later amended in 1878 and 1927, categorized forests as reserved, protected, or village forests. The most valuable were the ‘reserved forests.’
How Were the Lives of People Affected?
- Villagers relied on forests for diverse needs like fuel, fodder, and leaves.
- The forest department prioritized trees like teak and sal for shipbuilding and railways.
- Roots, leaves, fruits, and tubers served various purposes.
- The mahua tree provided oil for cooking and lighting lamps.
- The Forest Act caused hardship for villagers, leading to wood theft and bribery.
- Police constables and forest guards even demanded free food from people.
How Did Forest Rules Affect Cultivation?
- Shifting cultivation, also known as swidden cultivation, is a traditional agricultural practice found in parts of Asia, Africa, and South America.
- In this method, portions of the forest are cut and burned in rotation.
- After the first monsoon rains, seeds are sown in the ashes, and crops are harvested by October-November.
- These plots are cultivated for a few years and then left fallow for 12 to 18 years.
- A mixture of crops is grown on these plots.
- European foresters considered this practice harmful to forests.
- Additionally, it posed challenges for the government in tax calculation.
- Consequently, the government banned shifting cultivation.
Who Could Hunt?
- Local communities near forests relied on hunting deer, partridges, and small animals for survival.
- However, forest laws prohibited this practice, and poachers faced punishment if caught.
- In India, hunting tigers and other animals was historically associated with court and nobility culture.
- During colonial rule, hunting escalated to the point were species neared extinction.
- Rewards were offered for killing wild animals.
- Certain forest areas were reserved specifically for hunting.
New Trades, New Employment and New Services
- Forest trade in India has a long history, dating back to the medieval period.
- Adivasi communities engaged in trading elephants and various other goods, including hides, horns, silk cocoons, ivory, bamboo, spices, fibers, grasses, gums, and resins.
- Nomadic communities like the Banjaras facilitated this trade.
- However, the government strictly regulated trade, granting exclusive rights to large European trading firms for specific forest products.
- Despite new work opportunities, the well-being of the people did not significantly improve.
Rebellion in the Forest
Forest communities like the Siddhu and Kanu in the Santhal Parganas, Birsa Munda in Chhota Nagpur, and Alluri Sitarama Raju in Andhra Pradesh rebelled against imposed changes. These leaders played key roles in movements resisting these transformations.
The People of Bastar
- Bastar, located in the southernmost part of Chhattisgarh, shares borders with Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Maharashtra. The central part of Bastar lies on a plateau, while to the north lies the Chhattisgarh Plain, and to the south, the Godavari Plain.
- Various communities inhabit Bastar, including the Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras, and Halbas. These communities believe that the Earth granted each village its land, and in return, they care for the Earth through offerings during agricultural festivals.
- Local villagers diligently manage natural resources within their boundaries, and if someone wishes to collect wood from another village’s forests, they pay a small fee known as “devsari,” “dand,” or “man.”
The Fears of the People
- In 1905, the colonial government proposed reserving two-thirds of the forests, halting shifting cultivation, hunting, and forest product collection. Some forest villagers worked for free under the forest department. Over time, villagers faced higher land rents and labor demands.
- Discussions arose in village councils, bazaars, and festivals. The Dhurwas of Kanger Forest led the way in this movement. They looted bazaars, burned officials’ houses, schools, and police stations, and redistributed grain.
- British troops quelled the rebellion. Post-independence, the practice of excluding people from forests for industrial purposes persisted.
Forest Transformations in Java
Java, renowned for its rice production in Indonesia, was once predominantly forested. The Dutch initiated forest management on the island. While villages thrived in fertile plains, mountain communities practiced shifting cultivation.
The Woodcutters of Java
The Kalangs of Java were adept at cutting forests and practicing shifting cultivation. They specialized in harvesting teak, which was used to construct palaces for kings. When the Dutch asserted control over the forests in the 18th century, they attempted to enlist the Kalangs. In 1770, the Kalangs rebelled by attacking a Dutch fort in Joana, but their uprising was quelled.
Dutch Scientific Forestry
- In the nineteenth century, the Dutch introduced forest laws in Java. These laws restricted villagers’ access to forests. Wood could only be cut for specific purposes, such as making riverboats or constructing houses.
- Villagers faced penalties for grazing cattle, transporting wood without permits, or using forest roads with horse carts or cattle. Initially, the Dutch imposed rents on cultivated forest land.
- Later, some villages were exempted from these rents if they collectively provided free labor and buffaloes for cutting and transporting timber. This system was called the blandongdiensten.
Samin’s Challenge
- Surontiko Samin, from Randublatung village, a teak forest area, challenged the state’s claim to forest ownership. He argued that since the state did not create wind, water, earth, and wood, it couldn’t rightfully own them.
- This sparked a widespread movement. Some Saminists protested by lying down on their land during Dutch surveys, while others resisted taxes, fines, and labor demands.
War and Deforestation
The First World War and the Second World War had a major impact on forests. In Java, the Dutch followed ‘a scorched Earth policy’, destroying sawmills and burning huge piles of giant teak logs. After the war, it was difficult for the Indonesian forest service to get this land back.
New Developments in Forestry
Forest conservation has gained prominence as a crucial objective. In various regions across India, from Mizoram to Kerala, dense forests endure thanks to the safeguarding efforts of villages within sacred groves known as sarnas, devarakudu, kan, and rai.
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