Question-1 Explain why nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another. What are the advantages to the environment of this continuous movement?
Answer:
Nomadic tribes moved seasonally due to various reasons. They lacked regular fields for cattle fodder and relied on dry scrub forests in the low Himalayan hills from September to April. As summer arrived and snow melted, they migrated northward to lush green grazing grounds. In winter, they returned downhill due to snow cover, allowing natural vegetation restoration and maintaining pasture quality.
Question 2. Discuss why the colonial government in India brought in the following laws. In each case, explain how the law changed the lives of pastoralists:
(i). Waste Land rules
Answer:
The Waste Land rules were introduced by colonial rulers, who deemed all grazing lands as waste because they generated no revenue. The objective was to convert these lands into cultivated farmland, thereby increasing land revenue and crop production (including jute, cotton, and wheat). Unfortunately, these rules had dire consequences for pastoralists: the expansion of cultivated land led to a decline in pastures, jeopardizing their livelihoods.
(ii). Forest Acts
Answer
The Forest Acts aimed to safeguard and conserve forests primarily for their valuable timber, which held commercial significance. However, these acts significantly impacted pastoralists. Previously accessible forests, which had served as crucial grazing grounds for their cattle, were now off-limits. Pastoralists received permits that regulated their forest entry and exit. These permits specified the duration—both in terms of days and hours—that they could spend within the forest.
(iii). Criminal Tribes Act
Answer:
The British government viewed nomadic people with suspicion due to their continuous movement, leading to the passage of the Criminal Tribes Act in 1871. This act forced pastoralists into notified settlements, restricting their mobility without government permits and perpetuating their marginalization.
(iv). Grazing Tax
Answer:
The Grazing Tax, instituted by the colonial government to bolster revenue, imposed levies on pastoralists for each animal grazed on pastures. Initially auctioned to contractors, these taxes were set exorbitantly to recoup their expenses and maximize profits. Subsequently, the government took over tax collection, subjecting pastoralists to harassment and economic strain.
Question 3. Give reasons to explain why the Maasai community lost their grazing lands.
Answer:
In 1885, their territory was divided by an international boundary between British Kenya and German Tanganyika, halving their land.
- Prime pastures were reserved for white settlements, leaving the Maasai with arid, limited areas in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania.
- Severe drought compounded their losses, resulting in the death of nearly 60% of their cattle.
- The expansion of cultivation and the establishment of game reserves further reduced available grazing lands.
Question 4. There are many similarities in the way in which the modern world forced changes in the lives of pastoral communities in India and East Africa. Write about any two examples of changes which were similar for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai herders.
Answer:
Both Indian pastoralists and Maasai herders faced similar challenges imposed by colonial powers. Uncultivated land was deemed wasteland and brought under cultivation, encroaching on grazing tracts crucial for both groups. Colonial governments restricted pastoralist mobility through permits, leading to harassment and severe punishment for rule violators.
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