The Harappan Civilisation, also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation, is one of the most important and oldest civilisations of the Indian subcontinent, dating back to the Bronze Age. The civilisation flourished in the Indus River Valley and is renowned for its advanced urban planning, craft production, trade systems, and social organisation. This chapter delves into various aspects of the Harappan Civilisation, focusing on its origins, social structure, economy, religious beliefs, and eventual decline, as presented in the NCERT curriculum for Class 12 History.
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Chronology and Discovery of Harappan Civilisation:
- Origins and Chronology:
- The exact dates of the Harappan Civilisation remain debated. Various scholars have offered different time frames.
- Sir John Marshall, one of the first archaeologists to study the civilisation, estimated that it flourished between 3250 BCE and 2750 BCE.
- More recent studies, however, suggest that the mature phase of the civilisation dates between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE, with earlier and later phases marking its rise and decline.
- Discovery:
- The ruins of Harappa were first discovered in 1921 by archaeologist Daya Ram Sahni.
- R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro in 1922, one of the most well-known urban centres of this civilisation.
- In 1924, Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilisation, revealing its significance to the world.
- Notable discoveries and excavations continued in later years, with archaeologists such as S.R. Rao, R.S. Bisht, and B.K. Thapar playing crucial roles.
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Geographical Spread:
- Harappan Sites:
- The major sites of the Harappan Civilisation are located in modern-day Pakistan and northwestern India.
- In Pakistan, significant urban centres include Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Chanhudaro.
- In India, key sites include Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal (Gujarat), Dholavira (Gujarat), Banawali (Haryana), and Rakhigarhi (Haryana).
- It is important to note that the boundaries of this ancient civilisation do not align with present-day national borders.
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Urban Planning and Architecture:
- Planned Cities:
- The cities of the Harappan Civilisation were characterised by sophisticated urban planning.
- Cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa were laid out in a grid pattern, with streets that intersected at right angles, resembling modern city planning.
- The cities were divided into two sections: the Citadel (smaller, elevated, possibly the seat of power) and the Lower Town (larger residential area).
- Houses and Drainage:
- Harappan houses were made of baked bricks and had flat roofs, with each house having its own courtyard.
- Many houses had attached bathrooms and wells, with approximately 700 wells discovered in Mohenjodaro alone.
- The cities also had an advanced drainage system. Drains were covered and connected to the main street drains, ensuring the effective disposal of wastewater.
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Society and Social Structure:
- Absence of Caste System:
- Unlike later Indian civilisations, the Harappan society is believed to have been egalitarian. There is no evidence of the caste system in Harappan society.
- People lived together with mutual respect and understanding, and social distinctions were less pronounced compared to later Indian societies.
- Role of Women:
- Women in Harappan society appeared to hold a high social status. Archaeological evidence, such as terracotta figurines depicting women, suggests their significant role in both the domestic and religious spheres.
- The Harappans were also fond of fashion, as indicated by ornaments, beads, and jewellery found during excavations.
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Economy and Trade:
- Agriculture:
- The economic prosperity of the Harappan Civilisation was largely based on agriculture. Major crops included wheat, barley, millet, and rice.
- Archaeological evidence indicates the use of oxen for ploughing and irrigation systems such as canals and wells to water crops, particularly in semi-arid areas.
- Domestication of Animals:
- The Harappans domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, buffaloes, and pigs. They also consumed fish and meat.
- Trade:
- Harappans were active in internal as well as external trade.
- Seals discovered in distant lands such as Mesopotamia and Oman indicate that the Harappans maintained trade contacts with other ancient civilisations.
- Harappan boats and ships, depicted on seals, were used for trade along rivers and possibly across the Arabian Sea.
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Craft Production:
- Art and Crafts:
- The Harappans were skilled in craft production. They manufactured pottery, ornaments, toys, seals, and tools.
- Chanhudaro, a significant settlement, was dedicated to craft production, including bead-making, metal-working, shell-cutting, and seal-making.
- Craft Centres:
- Nageshwar and Balakot, near the coast, were centres for producing shell objects.
- Harappans also sourced raw materials from distant areas, such as copper from Rajasthan and gold from South India.
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Religious Beliefs:
- Worship:
- Harappans worshipped a variety of gods and goddesses.
- Terracotta figurines suggest that Mother Goddess worship was prevalent, while seals show figures resembling Proto-Shiva or a deity associated with yoga.
- They also worshipped animals, birds, trees, and the sun, indicating a deep connection with nature.
- Religious Artefacts:
- Seals and statues found at Harappan sites reflect a mix of spiritual beliefs, though their religious practices remain speculative due to the undeciphered script.
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Decline of the Harappan Civilisation:
- Reasons for Decline:
- By 1900 BCE, signs of decline became visible, and by 1200 BCE, the Harappan Civilisation had completely vanished.
- Several theories have been proposed for the civilisation’s decline, including environmental changes like flooding, earthquakes, deforestation, shifting rivers, and possible Aryan invasions.
- Late Harappan Phase:
- After the collapse of urban centres, many of the Harappan people adopted a more rural lifestyle, which is referred to as the Late Harappan culture.
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Important Terms:
- Seal: A clay or metal piece with animal motifs and a script used for long-distance trade.
- The Great Bath: A massive public bath at Mohenjodaro, likely used for ritualistic purposes.
- Granary: A structure used for storing grain in Harappan cities.
- Proto-Shiva: A figure seated in a yogic posture, found on seals, considered an early form of Lord Shiva.
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Timeline:
- 1862: Alexander Cunningham appointed as the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India.
- 1921: Daya Ram Sahni discovered Harappa.
- 1922: R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro.
- 1955: S.R. Rao discovered Lothal.
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