Passage 1📖
The City-State
Cardinal Gasparo Contarini (1483-1542) writes about the democratic government of his city-state in The Commonwealth and Government of Venice (1534)
‘…to come to the institution of our Venetian commonwealth, the whole authority of the city…is in that council, into which all the gentlemen of the City being once past the age of 25 years are admitted…
Now first I am to yield you a reckoning how and with what wisdom it was ordained by our ancestors, that the common people should not be admitted into this company of citizens, in whose authority [lies] the whole power of the commonwealth… Because many troubles and popular tumults arise in those cities, whose government is swayed by the common people… many were of contrary opinion, deeming that it would do well, if this manner of governing the commonwealth should rather be defined by ability and abundance of riches. Contrariwise the honest citizens, and those that are liberally brought up, oftentimes fall to poverty… Therefore our wise and prudent ancestors… ordered that this definition of the public rule should go rather by the nobility of lineage, than by the estimation of wealth: yet with that temperature [proviso], that men of chief and supreme nobility should not have this rule alone (for that would rather have been the power of a few than a commonwealth) but also every other citizen whosoever not ignobly born: so that all which were noble by birth, or ennobled by virtue, did…obtain this right of government.
Questions / Answer:
Question 1: According to Gasparo Contarini, what is the key institution holding the authority in the Venetian commonwealth?
Answer: The key institution holding authority in the Venetian commonwealth is the council, into which all gentlemen of the city who have reached the age of 25 are admitted.
Question 2: Why does Contarini argue against the inclusion of common people in the council that holds the power of the commonwealth?
Answer: Contarini believes that admitting common people into the council could lead to troubles and popular tumults, as observed in cities where the government is influenced by the common people.
Question 3: What alternative criteria for governance does Contarini suggest, and why?
Answer: Contarini suggests that governance should be defined by ability and abundance of riches rather than by the common people. However, he acknowledges that this could lead to the impoverishment of honest and liberally brought-up citizens.
Question 4: What principle did the wise and prudent ancestors of Venice establish regarding the eligibility for public rule in the city-state?
Answer: The ancestors established the principle that the definition of public rule should be based on the nobility of lineage rather than the estimation of wealth. However, it was also stipulated that supreme nobility alone should not hold this rule, to prevent it from becoming the power of a few rather than a true commonwealth.
Question 5: According to Contarini, who is granted the right of government in the Venetian commonwealth?
Answer: The right of government is granted to both those born noble and those ennobled by virtue. It is not exclusive to those of supreme nobility, ensuring a broader representation in the governance of the commonwealth.
Passage 2📖
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-94), a humanist of Florence, wrote on the importance of debate in On the Dignity of Man (1486).
‘For [Plato and Aristotle] it was certain that, for the attainment of the knowledge of truth they were always seeking for themselves, nothing is better than to attend as often as possible the exercise of debate. For just as bodily energy is strengthened by gymnastic exercise, so beyond doubt in this wrestling-place of letters, as it were, energy of mind becomes far stronger and more vigorous.’
Questions / Answer:
Question 1: Who is the author of the quoted passage, and what work does it come from?
Answer: The author is Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, and the passage is from “On the Dignity of Man,” written in 1486.
Question 2: What does Pico della Mirandola emphasize as crucial for the attainment of knowledge of truth, according to the passage?
Answer: Pico della Mirandola emphasizes that, according to Plato and Aristotle, nothing is better for the attainment of knowledge of truth than participating in the exercise of debate.
Question 3: According to the passage, what is the outcome of engaging in the exercise of debate in terms of mental energy?
Answer: The passage suggests that through active participation in the exercise of debate, the energy of the mind becomes far stronger and more vigorous, contributing to the pursuit of knowledge and truth.
Question 4: In what way does Pico della Mirandola draw an analogy between physical and mental exercise in the passage?
Answer: Pico della Mirandola draws an analogy between the strengthening of bodily energy through gymnastic exercise and the strengthening of mental energy in the “wrestling-place of letters,” which he refers to as the exercise of debate.
Question 5: What is the significance of the term “wrestling-place of letters” in the context of Pico della Mirandola’s statement?
Answer: The term “wrestling-place of letters” suggests that the intellectual arena, where debates and discussions take place, is a vigorous and challenging space were individuals grapple with ideas and opinions, akin to a physical wrestling ring.
Passage 3📖
“Art” is embedded in nature; he who can extract it, has it… Moreover, you may demonstrate much of your work by geometry. The more closely your work abides by life in its form, so much the better will it appear…No man shall ever be able to make a beautiful figure out of his own imagination unless he has well stored his mind by much copying from life.’ – Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) This sketch by Durer (Praying Hands) gives us a sense of Italian culture in the sixteenth century, when people were deeply religious, but also had a sense of confidence in man’s ability to achieve near-perfection and to unravel the mysteries of the world and the universe.
Questions / Answer:
Question 1: According to Albrecht Durer, where is “art” embedded, and what is required to extract it?
Answer: According to Durer, “art” is embedded in nature, and it can be extracted by those who have the ability to perceive it.
Question 2: How does Durer suggest one can demonstrate much of their artistic work?
Answer: Durer suggests that much of one’s artistic work can be demonstrated through geometry, implying a connection between artistic creation and mathematical precision.
Question 3: What advice does Durer give regarding the representation of life in artistic work?
Answer: Durer advises that artistic work should closely abide by life in its form, suggesting that a faithful representation of life enhances the quality of the artwork.
Question 4: What does Durer assert about creating a beautiful figure from imagination?
Answer: Durer asserts that no one can create a beautiful figure from their own imagination unless they have well-stored their mind by much copying from life, emphasizing the importance of observation and study.
Question 5: According to the passage, what does Durer’s sketch of “Praying Hands” reveal about the culture in sixteenth-century Italy?
Answer: Durer’s sketch of “Praying Hands” reflects the deep religious sentiment of sixteenth-century Italian culture, coupled with a sense of confidence in humanity’s ability to achieve near-perfection and unravel the mysteries of the world and the universe.
Passage 4📖
Niccolo Machiavelli wrote about human nature in the fifteenth chapter of his book, The Prince (1513).
‘So, leaving aside imaginary things, and referring only to those which truly exist, I say that whenever men are discussed (and especially princes, who are more exposed to view), they are noted for various qualities which earn them either praise or condemnation. Some, for example, are held to be generous, and others miserly. Some are held to be benefactors, others are called grasping; some cruel, some compassionate; one man faithless, another faithful; one man effeminate and cowardly, another fierce and courageous; one man courteous, another proud; one man lascivious, another pure; one guileless, another crafty; one stubborn, another flexible; one grave, another frivolous; one religious, another sceptical; and so forth.’
Machiavelli believed that ‘all men are bad and ever ready to display their vicious nature partly because of the fact that human desires are insatiable’. The most powerful motive Machiavelli saw as the incentive for every human action is self-interest.
Questions / Answer:
Question 1: According to Machiavelli, what qualities are often ascribed to individuals, especially princes, when they are discussed?
Answer: Individuals, especially princes, are noted for various qualities such as generosity, miserliness, being benefactors or grasping, cruelty or compassion, faithlessness or faithfulness, effeminacy or courage, courtesy or pride, lasciviousness or purity, guilelessness or craftiness, stubbornness or flexibility, gravity or frivolousness, religiousness or skepticism, and so on.
Question 2: What does Machiavelli assert about human nature and the qualities individuals possess?
Answer: Machiavelli believed that all men have various qualities that can earn them praise or condemnation, and he describes these qualities as diverse and encompassing traits such as generosity, cruelty, faithfulness, and more.
Question 3: What is Machiavelli’s perspective on human nature and the inherent motivation behind human actions?
Answer: Machiavelli believed that all men are inherently bad and are ever ready to display their vicious nature. He saw human desires as insatiable, and the most powerful motive behind every human action, according to him, is self-interest.
Question 4: How does Machiavelli describe the nature of human desires?
Answer: Machiavelli asserts that human desires are insatiable, implying that they are limitless and cannot be fully satisfied, which contributes to the readiness of individuals to display their vicious nature.
Question 5: What did Machiavelli consider as the primary incentive for every human action?
Answer: Machiavelli saw self-interest as the most powerful motive for every human action. According to him, individuals are primarily motivated by their own self-interest in their pursuits and decisions.
Passage 5📖
Balthasar Castiglione, author and diplomat, wrote in his book The Courtier (1528):
‘I hold that a woman should in no way resemble a man as regards her ways, manners, words, gestures and bearing. Thus, just as it is very fitting that a man should display a certain robust and sturdy manliness, so it is well for a woman to have a certain soft and delicate tenderness, with an air of feminine sweetness in her every movement, which, in her going and staying and whatsoever she does, always makes her appear a woman, without any resemblance to a man. If this precept be added to the rules that these gentlemen have taught the courtier, then I think that she ought to be able to make use of many of them, and adorn herself with the finest accomplishments… For I consider that many virtues of the mind are as necessary to a woman as to a man; as it is to be of good family; to shun affectation: to be naturally graceful; to be well mannered, clever and prudent; to be neither proud, envious or evil-tongued, nor vain… to perform well and gracefully the sports suitable for women.’
Questions / Answer:
Question 1: According to Balthasar Castiglione, how should a woman differ from a man in terms of her ways, manners, words, gestures, and bearing?
Answer: Castiglione asserts that a woman should not resemble a man in her ways, manners, words, gestures, and bearing. He suggests that a woman should have a soft and delicate tenderness, with an air of feminine sweetness in every movement, maintaining a distinctively feminine appearance.
Question 2: What qualities does Castiglione recommend for a woman, and how should she present herself?
Answer: Castiglione recommends that a woman should possess qualities such as softness, delicacy, tenderness, and feminine sweetness. In her every movement, including going and staying, she should appear distinctly as a woman and avoid any resemblance to a man.
Question 3: What additional precept does Castiglione suggest for women, in addition to the rules taught to the courtier?
Answer: Castiglione suggests that if the precept of maintaining a distinct feminine demeanor is added to the rules taught to the courtier, then a woman should be able to make use of many of those rules and adorn herself with the finest accomplishments.
Question 4: According to Castiglione, what virtues of the mind are as necessary for a woman as for a man?
Answer: Castiglione considers virtues of the mind, such as being of good family, shunning affectation, being naturally graceful, well-mannered, clever, and prudent, as necessary for a woman as they are for a man.
Question 5: What does Castiglione believe are essential virtues for both men and women, as mentioned in the passage?
Answer: Castiglione believes that virtues such as being of good family, avoiding affectation, being naturally graceful, well-mannered, clever, and prudent, as well as avoiding pride, envy, evil-tongued Ness, and vanity, are essential for both men and women. Additionally, he emphasizes the importance of performing well and gracefully the sports suitable for women.
Passage 6📖
William Tyndale (1494-1536), an English Lutheran who translated the Bible into English in 1506, defended Protestantism thus:
‘In this they be all agreed, to drive you from the knowledge of the scripture, and that ye shall not have the text thereof in the mother-tongue, and to keep the world still in darkness, to the intent they might sit in the consciences of the people, through vain superstition and false doctrine, to satisfy their proud ambition, and insatiable covetousness, and to exalt their own honour above king and emperor, yea, and above God himself… Which thing only moved me to translate the New Testament. Because I had perceived by experience, how that it was impossible to establish the lay-people in any truth, except the scripture were plainly laid before their eyes in their mother-tongue, that they might see the process, order, and meaning of the text. ‘
Questions / Answer:
Question 1: Who is the individual mentioned in the passage, and what significant contribution did he make to the English language?
Answer: The individual mentioned is William Tyndale. He translated the Bible into English in 1506, making a significant contribution to the English language through his translation.
Question 2: According to Tyndale, what is the common objective of those opposing the translation of the scripture into the mother-tongue?
Answer: Tyndale asserts that those opposing the translation of scripture into the mother-tongue are all united in their goal to prevent people from having access to the text and to keep them in darkness. This, he argues, allows these opponents to control the consciences of the people through superstition and false doctrine.
Question 3: Why does Tyndale believe it is crucial to translate the scripture into the mother-tongue?
Answer: Tyndale believes that translating the scripture into the mother-tongue is crucial because it is impossible to establish lay-people in any truth unless they can see the process, order, and meaning of the text plainly laid before their eyes. This, he argues, is necessary for clarity and understanding.
Question 4: According to Tyndale, what are the motivations of those opposing the translation of the scripture?
Answer: Tyndale contends that those opposing the translation of scripture are motivated by vain superstition, false doctrine, proud ambition, and insatiable covetousness. Their aim is to sit in the consciences of the people and elevate their own honor above even king, emperor, and God.
Question 5: What specific action did Tyndale take in response to his convictions, as mentioned in the passage?
Answer: Tyndale took the specific action of translating the New Testament into English. His motivation was to make the scripture accessible in the mother-tongue, allowing people to see the process, order, and meaning of the text, and thereby establishing them in the truth.
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