- SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWER
Question 1: What is importance of travel account in writing medieval history? Support your answer with example.
Answer:
The travel accounts of medieval times hold significant importance in understanding and documenting historical events, societies, and cultures. Here are three key reasons:
Primary Source of Information:
- Travel accounts serve as primary sources that provide firsthand observations and experiences of individuals who journeyed through medieval landscapes. These narratives offer valuable insights into the daily lives, customs, and traditions of people during that period.
Example: The travel accounts of Marco Polo, who ventured into Asia during the 13th century, provide detailed descriptions of the Mongol Empire, Chinese civilization, and the Silk Road trade routes. His observations contribute to our understanding of medieval Asia.
Cultural Exchange and Interaction:
- Travel accounts often depict the interactions between different cultures and civilizations, shedding light on the exchanges of ideas, technologies, and goods. This helps historians trace the development and diffusion of various elements across regions.
Example: Ibn Battuta’s travels in the 14th century covered a vast expanse, including Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. His accounts document the cultural diversity and interactions between different Islamic societies, providing a rich tapestry of medieval cultural exchange.
Geographical and Sociopolitical Insights:
- Medieval travel accounts offer valuable information about geographical features, political structures, and social dynamics of the regions visited. This aids historians in reconstructing the medieval landscape and understanding the political and social structures of the time.
Example: The travel accounts of William of Rubruck, a 13th-century Franciscan friar, provide details about the Mongol Empire and its ruler, Möngke Khan. His writings offer a glimpse into the political organization and governance of the Mongols during the medieval period.
Question 2: What were the “Barrier” for Al- biruni in understanding practices in India? Explain in three points.
Answer:
Al-Biruni, an Islamic scholar and polymath, faced certain barriers while trying to understand the practices in India during his time. Here are three key challenges:
Language Barrier:
- Al-Biruni encountered difficulties due to linguistic differences. The diverse linguistic landscape of India posed a challenge as he primarily spoke Arabic and Persian. Understanding and accurately interpreting the local languages hindered his ability to grasp the nuances of Indian practices.
Example: Sanskrit was the predominant language for religious and scholarly texts in India, and Al-Biruni faced challenges in translating and comprehending these texts due to the linguistic barrier.
Cultural and Religious Differences:
- The cultural and religious diversity in India presented a barrier for Al-Biruni. Coming from a different cultural background, he found it challenging to fully comprehend the intricacies of Indian customs, rituals, and religious practices.
Example: The multiplicity of belief systems in India, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, posed challenges for Al-Biruni in understanding the diverse religious practices and their cultural contexts.
Social Practices and Caste System:
- Al-Biruni encountered difficulty in grasping the complex social structure of India, particularly the caste system. The hierarchical nature of society and the associated customs posed a challenge in comprehending the social dynamics and interactions among different social groups.
Example: The caste system, with its distinct social roles and restrictions, was likely perplexing for Al-Biruni, as it differed significantly from the social structures, he was familiar with in the Islamic world.
Question 3: What picture do we get about the agriculture economy and trade and commerce in the sub-continent from the description of Ibn- batuta?
Answer:
Ibn Battuta’s descriptions provide insights into the agriculture, economy, and trade in the Indian subcontinent during his travels. Here are key points:
Agricultural Practices:
- Ibn Battuta noted the richness and productivity of agricultural lands in the Indian subcontinent. He described extensive cultivation of crops such as rice, sugarcane, and various fruits. The advanced irrigation systems, including canals, impressed him and reflected the significance of agriculture in sustaining the local economy.
Example: In his observations of the fertile Ganges River plains, Ibn Battuta highlighted the abundance of rice cultivation and the prosperity it brought to the region.
Economic Prosperity and Trade:
- Ibn Battuta highlighted the economic prosperity of the Indian subcontinent, attributing it to vibrant trade and commerce. He observed bustling markets, trade routes, and thriving urban centers engaged in commerce. The subcontinent’s strategic location on international trade routes contributed to its economic significance.
Example: Ibn Battuta’s accounts of major trading cities like Delhi and Calicut underscore the economic vibrancy and diverse goods exchanged in these cosmopolitan centers.
Diversity in Trade and Commerce:
- Ibn Battuta detailed the diversity of goods traded in the Indian subcontinent, emphasizing its role as a hub for commerce. He observed a wide range of commodities, including spices, textiles, precious gems, and spices, being traded within the region and with foreign merchants.
Example: His descriptions of the spice trade in the Malabar Coast highlight the significance of these coastal areas in facilitating the exchange of valuable commodities with merchants from the Middle East and beyond.
Question 4: What does Bernier say about the cities of the 17th century? How is his description.
Answer:
- Around 15% population in the 17th century lived in towns. This ratio was more than the ratio of the urban population of Europe. Then he described Mughal towns as ‘camp towns’ which he meant by those towns which were dependent upon imperial camps for their existence.
- He believed that these towns came into existence when the imperial court moved in and declined very quickly when it moved out. He also wrote that they did not have viable social and economic foundations and they were dependent upon imperial patronage.
Question 5: What are the views of Bernier about Sati System”?
Answer:
- It was a cruel practice in which the widow was made to sit on the pyre of her husband alive.
- The widow was an unwilling victim of the sati-practice. She was forced to be a sati.
- The people had no sympathy even for the child-widows.
Question 6: Why did Abul Fazl describe land revenue as renumerations of sovereignty”? Explain.
Answer:
- Abul Fazl described the land revenue as remuneration of sovereignty because only by giving land revenue to the government they were actually provided security by the government.
- They were free to work on their fields according to their wish. They were even free from the fear of any external aggression or internal revolt because it was the duty of the government to provide them every type of security.
- This land revenue was the main source of state’s income with army and security of the peasants that could be maintained.
Question 7: Explain the unique system of communication at that time on the basis of the discretional given by Ibn-Batuta.
Answer:
- Ibn Battuta was quite impressed by the communication system in India. The state took special measures by providing inns and guest houses in all trading centres.
- The advanced postal system allowed merchants to send information and remit credit across long distances and also to dispatch goods required at short notice.
Question 8: Write a short note on Kitab-ul-Hind.
Answer:
- AI-Biruni.s “Kitab-ul-Hind. is written in simple and lucid Arabic. It contains observation on Indian civilisation.
- It is a voluminous text divided into 80 chapters on subjects. It lights upon varied topical such as religion, philosophy, festivals, customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.
- Al-Biruni adopted a distinctive structure in each area, beginning with a question followed up with a comparison with other cultures. Some historians conclude this near geometric structure which was remarkable for its precision.
- Al-Biruni probably wrote his monumental work to acquaint his Ghazavid ruler and peoples living along the frontiers of subcontinent. He was familiar with Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit texts which had been translated into Arabic.
- He defines the Hindu caste system by looking for parallels in other societies.
Question 9: According to Ibn Batuta why travelling was highly insecure?
Answer:
- Travelling was also more insecure: Ibn Battuta was attacked by bands of robbers several times. … While travelling from Multan to Delhi, for instance, his caravan was attacked and many of his fellow travellers lost their lives; those travellers who survived, including Ibn Battuta, were severely wounded.
Question 10: Ibn Batuta found the city of Delhi full of opportunities. Explain the statement based on the facts given by him.
Answer:
Ibn Battuta found cities in the Indian subcontinent full exciting opportunities, espeemly the city of Delhi:
- Delhi covers a wide area and has a dense population.
- There is a rampart round the ciry that is without parallel. The brcadth of its wall is eleven cubics and inside it, there are houses for the night sentry and gatekeepers.
- Inside the ramparts, there are store houses for storing edibles, magazines, ammunition, ballistas and siege machine.
- There are twenty-eight gates in the city which are called darwaza in which, Budaun Darwaza is the biggest. (v) In Gul Darwaza there is an orchard. It has fine cemetery in which graves have domes over them and those that do not have a dome, have an arch for sure.
Question 11: How did Ibn Batuta and Bernier represent an interesting tabla of life of women in 16th and 17th century? Explain.
Answer:
Ibn Battuta and François Bernier were travelers and chroniclers from different periods and regions, with Ibn Battuta exploring the Islamic world in the 14th century, while Bernier traveled through India in the 17th century. If you are referring to life for women in the 16th and 17th centuries based on their accounts, here’s a brief overview:
Ibn Battuta’s Perspective (14th Century):
- Ibn Battuta’s writings mainly focused on the Islamic world, and his observations provide insights into the social and cultural aspects of the regions he visited.
- In many Islamic societies of the 14th century, women’s lives were often influenced by traditional Islamic norms and practices, including modest dress, seclusion, and adherence to familial and societal expectations.
- Ibn Battuta’s accounts may reveal glimpses of the roles and status of women within the cultural and religious contexts of the time.
François Bernier’s Perspective (17th Century – India):
- François Bernier’s observations were centered around India during the 17th century, providing insights into the Mughal Empire and its societal structure.
- The status and roles of women in 17th-century India were influenced by a combination of cultural, religious, and regional factors. Practices such as purdah (veiling and seclusion) were prevalent in certain communities.
- Bernier’s writings might shed light on the diversity of women’s experiences in different regions and communities within India during the Mughal era.
Question 12: Bernier’s description of the state ownership of land influenced the western theorists like French philosopher Montesquieu and German Karl Marx, Justify this statement.
Answer:
Montesquieu (1689–1755):
- Montesquieu, a French political thinker, is best known for his work “The Spirit of the Laws” (1748). He focused on the separation of powers and the importance of political institutions.
- Montesquieu’s ideas were more influenced by classical political philosophy, the British constitutional system, and his observations of various forms of government rather than direct influences from Bernier.
Karl Marx (1818–1883):
- Karl Marx, a German philosopher and economist, developed the theory of communism and wrote extensively on socioeconomic issues in works like “The Communist Manifesto” (1848) and “Das Kapital.”
- Marx’s theories were rooted in the analysis of capitalism, class struggle, and historical materialism. His influences include German philosophy, classical economics, and the industrial conditions of his time.
Question 13: What has Bernier explained about land-ownership?
Answer:
Mughal Administrative System:
- Bernier discussed the Mughal administrative system, which included a centralized bureaucracy and a revenue collection system based on the agricultural produce of the land.
- The Mughal Emperor and the nobility were involved in the ownership and control of land. The revenue system was designed to extract a share of the agricultural produce from the peasantry.
Land Revenue and Taxation:
- Bernier highlighted the system of land revenue and taxation in the Mughal Empire, where revenue was collected from the cultivators and passed up to the imperial treasury.
- The revenue demands were often significant, and the peasantry had to bear the burden of taxation. Bernier’s observations might include insights into the impact of this system on the local population.
Ownership by the Elite:
- Bernier may have commented on the concentration of land ownership in the hands of the Mughal ruling elite and the nobility. The ownership of large estates and agricultural land was a source of wealth and power for the aristocracy.
Question 14: How did the descriptions of Bernier influence the Western theorists?
Answer:
Intellectual Curiosity:
- Bernier’s detailed accounts of Indian society, culture, and governance might have sparked intellectual curiosity among Western thinkers. The exposure to different social structures and practices could have contributed to a more nuanced understanding of cultural diversity.
Comparative Analysis:
- European philosophers and political theorists, including those like Montesquieu, were engaged in comparative analyses of different political systems. Bernier’s observations of the Mughal Empire and Indian society could have been incorporated into broader discussions about governance and social organization.
Influence on Enlightenment Thought:
- The 17th and 18th centuries marked the Enlightenment period, characterized by a focus on reason, liberty, and progress. Bernier’s accounts of Eastern societies might have influenced Enlightenment thinkers by providing examples of alternative social and political structures.
Question 15: Give any three characteristic features of the foreign travellers who visited India in the medieval period.
Answer:
Cultural Curiosity and Exploration:
- Many foreign travelers, such as Ibn Battuta and Marco Polo, exhibited a deep curiosity about Indian culture, traditions, and customs. Their writings often focused on the rich cultural diversity, religious practices, and societal norms prevalent in different regions of India.
- These travelers were keen on exploring and understanding the local way of life, including religious rituals, social hierarchies, and economic activities. Their accounts provided valuable insights into the complexities of Indian societies.
Trade and Economic Interests:
- Economic motives were often a driving force for foreign travelers during the medieval period. The allure of India’s wealth, particularly its spices, textiles, and other valuable commodities, attracted traders and adventurers.
- Many travelers documented their experiences with the Indian trade routes, the bustling markets, and the economic activities that fueled the region’s prosperity. Their observations contributed to a broader understanding of India’s economic significance in the medieval world.
Observations on Political Systems:
- Foreign travelers frequently made observations about the political structures and governance systems in the regions they visited. They documented interactions with local rulers, the administration of justice, and the general political stability or turmoil prevailing in different areas.
- Their writings often reflected comparisons between Indian political systems and those of their home countries, contributing to cross-cultural analyses and a broader understanding of diverse political structures.
Question 16: What did Bernier warn European rulers in his descriptions?
Answer:
Bernier warned that if European kings followed the Mughal model:
- Their kingdoms would be very far from being well-cultivated and peopled, so well built, so rich, so polite and flourishing as we see them.
- Our kings are otherwise rich and powerful; and we must avow that they are much better and more royally served.
- LONG QUESTIONS AND ANSWER
Question 1: Discuss Al-Biruni’s explanation in relation to caste system.
Answer:
Cultural and Societal Context:
- Al-Biruni’s exploration of the caste system was deeply embedded in the broader context of his anthropological studies.
- He approached the subject with a scientific and comparative perspective, seeking to understand the intricacies of Indian society and its diverse social structures.
Classifications and Hierarchy:
- In “Kitab al-Hind,” Al-Biruni meticulously classified Indian society into different groups, highlighting the intricate hierarchy of the caste system. He identified four primary varnas or social classes: Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and landowners), and Shudras (laborers and service providers).
- Additionally, he acknowledged various sub-castes and communities within these broad categories.
Occupational Division and Social Roles:
- Al-Biruni delved into the occupational divisions associated with each varna. He recognized that the caste system was intricately linked to the division of labor, with individuals expected to adhere to their prescribed professions based on their birth.
- His analysis touched upon the social roles and responsibilities assigned to each caste, emphasizing the idea that the functioning of society relied on the cooperation and harmony among these distinct groups.
Religious Perspectives:
- Al-Biruni also explored the connection between the caste system and Hindu religious beliefs. He discussed the Brahminical influence on shaping and maintaining the hierarchical structure, emphasizing the interplay between religion and social order.
- While his observations were largely empirical, Al-Biruni acknowledged the significance of religious doctrines in reinforcing the caste system.
Comparative Analysis:
- Al-Biruni’s work displayed a comparative approach, drawing parallels between the caste system and social structures in other societies.
- His analysis aimed at understanding the diversity of human societies, and he refrained from passing judgment on the Indian social system, adopting a more objective and scientific stance.
Question 2: How can you say that the accounts of foreign travellers help in building the history of 10th to 17th century. Explain by giving example.
Answer:
Cross-Cultural Interaction:
- Foreign travelers acted as intermediaries between different cultures, facilitating the exchange of knowledge, ideas, and technologies. Their accounts often documented the encounters between civilizations, shedding light on the impact of cultural exchanges on societal development.
Example: Al-Biruni’s “Kitab al-Hind”
Economic Histories and Trade Routes:
- Foreign travelers frequently documented trade routes, economic activities, and the wealth of regions they visited. These accounts help reconstruct economic histories, illustrating the interconnectedness of different regions through trade and commerce.
Example: Marco Polo’s “Il Milione” (The Travels of Marco Polo)
Political Structures and Diplomacy:
- Foreign travelers often interacted with local rulers and political elites, offering insights into the governance structures, diplomatic relations, and political stability or turmoil in different regions.
Example: Ibn Battuta’s “Rihla”
Social and Cultural Practices:
- Travelers’ accounts are rich sources for understanding social norms, cultural practices, and everyday life. Descriptions of religious ceremonies, festivals, and societal customs provide a glimpse into the cultural fabric of societies.
Example: Jean-Baptiste Tavernier’s “Travels in India”
Question 3: How has Ibn Batuta described India in his travel account?
Answer:
Geographical Diversity:
- Ibn Battuta highlighted the vastness and diversity of India’s geography. He traveled through different regions, including the Deccan Plateau, the Gangetic plains, and coastal areas. His descriptions captured the varied landscapes, climates, and natural features of the subcontinent.
Urban Centers and Trade:
- Ibn Battuta visited several major cities in India, such as Delhi, Calicut (Kozhikode), and Cambay (Khambhat). He noted the bustling markets, diverse commercial activities, and the vibrant urban life in these centers. His observations reflected the economic prosperity and trade networks that characterized Indian cities during the medieval period.
Social and Cultural Practices:
- Ibn Battuta provided insights into the social and cultural practices of different Indian communities. He observed various religious ceremonies, traditions, and customs, including Hindu rituals and festivals. His account reflects his interest in understanding the cultural diversity of India.
Political Landscape:
- Ibn Battuta traveled during a period when the Delhi Sultanate was a prominent political entity in northern India. His observations included interactions with rulers, courtly life, and the administration of justice. He also visited the court of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi during that time.
Economic Activities and Professions:
- The explorer documented the economic activities prevalent in different regions. He noted the importance of agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship in sustaining local economies. Ibn Battuta’s descriptions provided a glimpse into the diverse professions and occupations of the people he encountered.
Religious Diversity:
- Ibn Battuta acknowledged the religious diversity of India, including encounters with Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. His observations on religious practices, temples, and religious festivals contributed to a broader understanding of the religious landscape of medieval India.
Question 4: How has Bernier compared ‘East’ and ‘West’ in his book?
Answer:
Political and Administrative Systems:
- Bernier commented on the political and administrative structures of the Mughal Empire in India and drew comparisons with European systems.
- He noted the centralized authority of the Mughal rulers and the presence of a bureaucratic administration. This was in contrast to the more decentralized feudal structures in parts of Europe during that period.
Cultural and Social Differences:
- Bernier highlighted the cultural and social distinctions between India and Europe.
- He discussed the diversity of Indian society, including the caste system, religious practices, and the coexistence of multiple cultural traditions. His observations contrasted with the societal structures and cultural practices prevalent in Europe during the 17th century.
Economic Perspectives:
- The traveler explored economic aspects, emphasizing the wealth and prosperity of the Mughal Empire.
- He discussed the agricultural productivity, trade, and economic activities in India. In doing so, he drew comparisons with the economic conditions in Europe, providing insights into the economic disparities and dynamics between the two regions.
Medical Practices and Knowledge:
- As a physician, Bernier also compared medical practices and knowledge in India and Europe. He discussed traditional Indian medical systems and their effectiveness, drawing comparisons with European medical practices.
- This comparative analysis reflected Bernier’s interest in understanding and evaluating different approaches to medicine.
Religious Diversity:
- Bernier acknowledged the religious diversity in India, where Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, and other faiths coexisted.
- This contrasted with the religious landscape of Europe, which was primarily characterized by Christianity. His observations shed light on the complexities of religious plurality in the East as opposed to the more homogenous religious landscape in the West.
Question 5: Discuss the testimonies given by Ibn Batuta is relation to slave system.
Answer:
African Slave Trade:
- Ibn Battuta extensively traveled in West Africa, where he encountered societies engaged in the trans-Saharan slave trade.
- He witnessed the capture, sale, and transportation of slaves across the Saharan region. His accounts reflect the involvement of various African societies in the trade of enslaved individuals.
Slavery in Islamic Societies:
- Throughout the Islamic world, including regions like the Maghreb, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Indian subcontinent, Ibn Battuta encountered different forms of servitude.
- Slavery was deeply ingrained in many Islamic societies, with slaves employed in various roles, such as domestic service, agriculture, and military.
Social Status and Slave Owners:
- Ibn Battuta noted the varying social statuses of slaves within Islamic societies. While some slaves occupied lower socioeconomic positions, others served in influential roles within the households of wealthy individuals or as administrators. He observed that affluent households often owned multiple slaves.
Treatment of Slaves:
- Ibn Battuta’s testimonies reveal a range of attitudes and treatments toward slaves. While some owners treated their slaves with relative kindness and respect, others were known for harsh treatment and exploitation.
- The treatment of slaves varied based on the individual slave owner’s disposition and cultural practices.
Slave Revolts:
- In certain regions, Ibn Battuta witnessed instances of slave revolts and resistance against oppressive conditions. These revolts were reflective of the complex dynamics and tensions within slave-owning societies.
Role of Slaves in Commerce:
- In the Indian subcontinent, Ibn Battuta observed the involvement of slaves in commercial activities. Some slaves served as traders, artisans, or skilled workers, contributing to the economic activities of the societies in which they lived.
Legal Framework:
- Ibn Battuta also described the legal aspects of slavery within Islamic societies, acknowledging the presence of laws regulating the treatment of slaves. While there were laws that aimed to protect the rights of slaves, enforcement and adherence to these regulations varied.
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