📁Learning Objective
- A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices
- Poems of Prayer Early Traditions of Bhakti
- The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka
- Religious Ferment in North India
- New Strands in the Fabric Islamic Traditions
- The Growth of Sufism
- The Chishtis in the Subcontinent
- New Devotional Paths Dialogue and Dissent in Northern India
- Reconstructing Histories of Religious Traditions
A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices
- Increasing visibility of a wide range of gods and goddesses in sculpture and texts.
- Worship of major deities (Vishnu, Shiva, and the goddess) in various forms.
The integration of cults
- Dissemination of Brahmanical ideas through Puranic texts accessible to all, including women and Shudras.
- Brahmanas accepting and reworking beliefs and practices from various social categories.
- Continuous dialogue between “great” Sanskrit Puranic traditions and “little” traditions.
- Example at Puri, Orissa, where the principal deity became Jagannatha, a form of Vishnu.
- Integration of goddess cults within the Puranic framework, equating them with wives of principal male deities.
Difference and Conflict
- Tantric practices associated with the goddess, widespread and open to all.
- Influence of Tantric ideas on Shaivism and Buddhism.
- Divergence and conflicts between Vedic and Puranic traditions.
Poems of Prayer Early Traditions of Bhakti
- The historians of religion classified Bhakti traditions into two broad categories: saguna (with attributes) and nirguna (without attributes).
- Saguna included traditions that focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi.
- Nirguna bhakti on the other hand was worship of an abstract form of god.
The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu ·
- During the sixth century, some of the Bhakti movements were led by the Alvars and the Nayanars.
·
- The literal meaning of the Alvars is those who are immersed in devotion to Vishnu. ·
- The meaning of the word Nayanars is those who were devotees of Shiva. ·
- They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods. ·
- During their travels the Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines as abodes of their chosen deities. ·
- Later big temples were built at those places and developed as pilgrimage centres.
Attitude towards caste ·
- According to some historians, the Alvars and the Nayanars started a movement of protest against the caste system and the Brahmanas and attempted to reform the system. ·
- The devotees came from the different social backgrounds such as artisans, cultivators and even from the caste that were considered “untouchable”
Women devotees
- One of the striking features of these traditions was the presence of women. ·
- For example, there was a saint-poet called Andal, a woman Alvar. ·
- Her compositions were sung and sung even today.
- Another woman, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva adopted the path of extreme asceticism to attain her goal. ·
- Her compositions were preserved within the Nayanar tradition. · These women renounced their social obligations, but did not become nuns. ·
- Their presence was a challenge to patriarchal norms.
Relations with the state
- The Chola rulers supported the bhakti traditions and built temples for Shiva and Vishnu. ·
- Some of the magnificent temples for Shiva such as temples in Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholpuram were constructed under their patronage. ·
- The Chola rulers built temples often to claim divine support and proclaim their own power and status and adorned those temples with stone and metal sculpture to represent the visions of the popular saints. ·
- They made the spectacular representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture. ·
- The Chola kings introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns under royal patronage, taking the initiative to collect and organize them into a text (Tevaram). ·
- According to Inscriptional evidence, the Chola king Parantaka I had constructed the metal images of Appar,Sambandar and Sundarar in a Shiva temple. ·
- These were carried in procession during the festivals of these saints.
The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka
- A new movement emerged in Karnataka led by a Brahmana named Basavanna in the 12th century’.
- His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (Wearers of Lingas). Lingayats continue to be an important community in the region to date.
- The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste, pollution, theory of rebirth etc and encouraged post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.
- Our understanding of the Virashaiva tradition is derived from Vachanas (literally sayings) composed in Kannada by women and men who joined the movement.
Religious Ferment in North India
- According to historians, in north India there was a period when several Rajput states emerged and in most of these states Brahmanas occupied important place by performing rituals. ·
- There was no attempt to question their position directly. At the same time there were other religious leaders who were out of the orthodox Brahmanical systems, and were gaining ground. ·
- These included the Naths,Jogis and Siddhas.Many of them came from artisanal groups such as weavers who were well organized. ·
- These religious leaders questioned the authority of the Vedas. However, they were unable to win the support of the ruling elites. ·
- Turkish conquest culminated in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. ·
- The power of many Rajput rulers was thus undermined and also of the Brahmanas who were associated with those kingdoms. ·
- The coming of the Sufis was a significant part of these developments.
New Strands in the Fabric Islamic Traditions
- Regions within the subcontinent had historical contacts with lands beyond seas and mountains.
- Arab merchants frequented western coast ports, and Central Asian people settled in the north-western parts in the first millennium CE.
- From the seventh century, with the advent of Islam, the subcontinent became part of the Islamic world.
Faiths of rulers and subjects
- Arab general Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind in 711, making it part of the Caliph’s domain.
- Turks and Afghans established the Delhi Sultanate in the thirteenth century. Islam became an acknowledged religion of rulers in various Sultanates and the Mughal Empire.
- Muslim rulers theoretically guided by the ulama, expected to rule according to the shari‘a (Islamic law). Complications arose due to non-Muslim populations in the subcontinent.
- The category of zimmi, meaning protected, developed for non-Muslims following revealed scriptures (Jews, Christians, and later extended to Hindus). Zimmi paid a tax called jizya and gained protection under Muslim rulership.
- Rulers adopted flexible policies towards subjects. Land endowments, tax exemptions, and respect towards non-Muslim religious institutions were granted. Mughal rulers like Akbar and Aurangzeb made such grants, expressing respect for non-Muslim religious leaders.
- Rulers adopted flexible policies towards subjects. Land endowments, tax exemptions, and respect towards non-Muslim religious institutions were granted. Mughal rulers like Akbar and Aurangzeb made such grants, expressing respect for non-Muslim religious leaders.
The popular practice of Islam
- The five pillars of faith in Islam
Those who adopted Islam follow five “pillars”of faith. ·
- There is one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger
(shahada) ·
- Offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat) ·
- Giving alms (zakat) ·
- Fasting during the month of Ramzan(sawam) ·
- Performing the pilgrimage to mecca(hajj)
- The universal features of Islam declined due to the sectarian practices (Sunni,Shi’) and the influence of local customary practices. ·
- For example, Arab Muslim traders who settled Malabar Coast adopted Malayalam language and matriliny system. ·
- The best example of the blending of a universal faith and local traditions is mosques. ·
- The architectural features of mosques are universal (orientation towards Mecca and the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit). ·
- There are variations such as roofs and building materials.
Names for communities
- Terms like “Hindu” and “Muslim” were not widely used between the eighth and fourteenth centuries. Instead, people were often identified by their region of origin.
- Turkish rulers were referred to as “Turushka,” Tajik people as “Tajika,” and Persians as “Parashika.”
- Some migrant communities were labeled using terms originally applied to other groups, such as Turks and Afghans being called “Shakas” and “Yavanas” (used for Greeks).
- A more general term for these communities was “mlechchha,” implying that they did not conform to caste norms and spoke non-Sanskrit languages.
- Terms like “mlechchha” sometimes had derogatory meanings, but they did not necessarily denote a specific religious community like Muslims against Hindus.
- The term “Hindu” had diverse applications and was not strictly confined to a religious context.The term “Muslim” (musalman) was virtually absent in Sanskrit texts and inscriptions during this period.
- People were often identified by their regional origin rather than religious affiliation.
The Growth of Sufism
- Sufis emerged in early Islamic centuries as a religious-minded group.
- They turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the increasing materialism of the Caliphate, both religious and political.Sufis criticized dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods used by theologians in interpreting the Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet (sunna).
- Sufis emphasized seeking salvation through intense devotion and love for God. They followed God’s commands and looked to Prophet Muhammad as a perfect human example.
Khanqahs and silsilas
- By the eleventh century, Sufism evolved into a well-developed movement. Sufis organized communities around hospices called khanqah, led by a teaching master (shaikh, pir, or murshid).
- The master enrolled disciples (murids) and appointed a successor (khalifa). Rules for spiritual conduct and interactions were established within the community.
- Sufi silsilas, meaning a chain, crystallized around the twelfth century. It signified a continuous spiritual link from the master to the disciple, tracing back to Prophet Muhammad.
- Initiates underwent special rituals, including taking an oath of allegiance, wearing a patched garment, and shaving their hair. Upon the shaikh’s death, his tomb-shrine (dargah) became a center of devotion.
- Pilgrimages (ziyarat) were made, particularly on the death anniversary (urs), believing saints in death were closer to God.Upon the shaikh’s death, his tomb-shrine (dargah) became a center of devotion.
- Pilgrimages (ziyarat) were made, particularly on the death anniversary (urs), believing saints in death were closer to God.The cult of the shaikh as a revered wali (saint) evolved, with people seeking blessings for material and spiritual benefits.
Outside the khanqah
- Mystics outside khanqah adopted a radical interpretation of Sufi ideals.Many mystics scorned the khanqah (Sufi lodge).
- Preferred alternative paths.Embraced mendicancy (begging) for sustenance. Practiced celibacy, avoiding marriage.Disregarded traditional religious rituals.
- Observed intense ascetic practices.Known by various names like Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris.Deliberately defied shari‘a (Islamic law).
- Termed “be-shari‘a” due to non-compliance.Contrasted with ba-shari‘a sufis who followed Islamic law.
The Chishtis in the Subcontinent
- Life in the Chishti khanqah The khanqah was the centre of social life. It comprised several small rooms and a big hall where inmates and visitors lived and prayed.
- The Shaikh lived in a small room on the roof of the hall where he met visitors in the morning and evening. There was an open kitchen (langar).
- From morning till evening people from all walks of life, came to seek the blessings from the Shaikh in various matters.Other visitors included poets such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir Khusru and the court historian Ziyauddin Barani and all of them wrote about the Shaikh.
- The practices that were adopted by the Chishtis in their kanqah ·
- Bowing before the Shaikh ·
- Offering water to visitors ·
- Shaving the heads of initiates ·
- Yogic exercises
Chishti devotionalism: Ziyarat and qawwali
- Pilgrimage called Ziyarat tombs of Sufi saints is prevalent all over the Muslim world. This practice is an occasion for seeking the Sufi’s spiritual grace (barakat).
- For more than seven centuries people from different walks of life expressed their devotion at the dargahs of the five great Chishti saints.
- The use of music and dance including mystical chants performed by specially trained musicians or qawwals to evoke divine ecstasy is also part of ziyarat.
- The Sufis remember God either by reciting the zikr(the Divine Names)or evoking His presence through sama or performance of mystical music known as qawwali.
Languages and communication
- The Chishtis composed their poems in several languages. The Chishtis used Hindavi or Persian language. Sufis such as Baba Farid composed poetry in local language.
- Some Sufis composed long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love using human love as an allegory. v
- Sufi poetry was composed in the Dakhani language around the Bijapur and Karnataka region. Women while performing household chores like grinding grain and spinning sang these poems. v
- Other poems were in the form of lurinama(lullabies) or wedding songs(shadinama).The Sufis of this region were inspired by the kannada vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the sants of Pandharpur.
Sufis and the state
- The chishti tradition was austere but it did not isolate political power. The Sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political elites. The sultans set up charitable trusts (auqaf) as endowments for hospices and granted tax-free land (inam). v
- The chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind and used for their immediate requirements such as food, clothes, living quarters and ritual necessities such as sama.The moral high status of the Sufis attracted people from all walks of life. v
- The kings wished to secure their support. Kings simply did not need to show their association with Sufis and also required legitimating for them. When the Turks set up the Delhi Sultanate, Sufis resisted the insistence of the ulama on imposing shari’a as state law because they anticipated opposition from their subjects. v
- The sultans also came to depend on the sufis to interpret the Sahri’a.It was believed that Auliya could intercede with god to improve the material and spiritual conditions of the people. As a result, kings got the shrines of the Sufis near built near their tombs. v
- There were instances of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis.To assert their authority both expected certain rituals performed like kissing of the feet etc.
New Devotional Paths Dialogue and Dissent in Northern India
Weaving a divine fabric: Kabir
- Kabir was a poet-saint of 14th-15th centuries.
- Kabir’s verses were compiled in three distinct traditions
- The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth in Uttar Pradesh.
- The Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan.
- Many of his verses were included in the Adi Granth Sahib.
- Kabir described the ultimate reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazarat and Pir. He also used terms from vedantic traditions, like alakh, nirakar, brahmin, atman, etc.
- Kabir accepted all types of philosophy i.e. Vedantic traditions, Yogic traditions and Islamic ideas.
- Kabir’s ideas probably crystallised through dialogue and debate.
Baba Guru Nanak and the Sacred Word
- The message of Guru Nanak is spelt out in his hymns and teachings, where he advocated a form of Nirguna bhakti.
- According to Guru Nanak, the absolute or ‘rab’ had no gender or form. His ideas expressed through hymns called ‘Shabad’ in Punjabi.
- Guru Arjan compiled Guru Nanak’s hymns along with the hymns of Baba Farid, Ravidas and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib. Later, Guru Gobind Singh included the compositions of Guru Tegh Bahadur and this scripture was known as the ‘Guru Granth Sahib.’
Mirabai, the devotee princess
- Mirabai was a famous woman-poet of Bhakti tradition. She composed many songs that were characterised by intense expression of emotions.
- Mirabai’s song inspired poor and low caste people in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
- Shankaradeva in the late fifteenth century was a leading proponent of Vaishnavism in Assam.
- He emphasised the need for ‘Naam Kirtan’ and encouraged the establishment of ‘Satra’ or mynas tries and ‘naam ghar’ or prayer halls. His major compositions include the ‘Kirtana-ghosha’.
Reconstructing Histories of Religious Traditions
- Religious traditions included a wide variety, written in several different languages and styles. These ranged from the direct language of the Vachanas of Basavanna to the Persian farman of the Mughal Emperors.
- Historians have to understand that religious traditions like other traditions, are dynamic and change over time.
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