- SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWER
Question 1: From which sources do we get the information about the activities of village community of 16th and 17th century. Explain.
Answer:
Information about the activities of village communities in the 16th and 17th centuries is primarily obtained from historical documents, such as:
Archival Records:
Official documents, land records, and administrative records kept in archives provide insights into the economic, social, and political activities of village communities.
Contemporary Accounts:
Diaries, letters, and travelogues written by individuals from that time period offer firsthand observations and experiences related to village life.
Legal Documents:
Legal records, including court proceedings and agreements, shed light on disputes, property rights, and other aspects of village governance.
Maps and Surveys:
Cartographic materials and surveys conducted during the period can provide information on the geographical layout, land use, and infrastructure of village communities.
Historical Literature:
Works of literature from the 16th and 17th centuries may contain descriptions or depictions of village life, offering cultural and societal insights.
Archaeological Findings:
Archaeological excavations of village sites can reveal artifacts and structures that contribute to our understanding of daily life and activities.
Question 2: Explain how the Mughal state tried to control rural society by its representatives such as revenue fixer, revenue collector, accountant etc.
Answer:
The Mughal state controlled rural society through a well-organized revenue administration system. Representatives like revenue fixers, revenue collectors, and accountants played crucial roles:
Revenue Fixer (Amil):
Assigned to fix and assess the land revenue, the revenue fixer determined the amount of tax payable by each village based on factors like soil fertility and crop production.
Revenue Collector (Diwan):
Responsible for collecting the fixed revenue, the revenue collector ensured timely payments from villages. They had the authority to use force if necessary and often had a military contingent.
Accountant (Patwari):
Maintaining detailed land records and assessing individual holdings, the accountant played a key role in documenting the revenue collected and ensuring accurate distribution of tax burdens.
Question 3: Mughal rural society was divided into several groups due to caste discrimination. Validate this statement.
Answer:
Yes, the Mughal rural society was characterized by caste distinctions, contributing to social stratification. Caste discrimination led to the division of communities into hierarchical groups, influencing various aspects of daily life, including occupation, social status, and interactions. This caste-based social structure persisted alongside the administrative framework and played a significant role in shaping Mughal rural society.
Question 4: Why did every caste feel the need have their own panchayat, other than the Mughal village panachayat?
Answer:
Autonomy and Representation:
Caste-based panchayats provided a platform for each caste group to address its specific concerns, resolve internal disputes, and represent its interests independently. This autonomy allowed castes to manage their internal affairs and make decisions in line with their socio-cultural practices.
Caste-Specific Issues:
Different castes often faced unique challenges and issues that were specific to their social, economic, or cultural context. Having their own panchayats enabled them to address and resolve these issues more effectively, tailored to the needs and customs of each caste.
Preservation of Social Hierarchy:
Caste-based panchayats played a role in maintaining and reinforcing social hierarchy within the community. They helped regulate social norms, traditions, and customs, ensuring that each caste adhered to its prescribed roles and responsibilities, thus preserving the established social order.
Question 5: How was the irrigation system an integral part of the society of medieval India? Give a comparision of north and south India.
Answer:
Irrigation in Medieval India:
Irrigation played a vital role in medieval Indian society, contributing to agricultural productivity and shaping socio-economic structures. The availability and management of water resources influenced the prosperity of regions, and different irrigation systems were integral to society.
Comparison between North and South India:
- North India:
River-Based Irrigation:
North India primarily relied on river-based irrigation systems, utilizing the waters of rivers like the Ganges and Yamuna. Canals were constructed to divert water to agricultural fields, enhancing cultivation in the fertile plains.
Tank Irrigation:
Some regions in North India also had tank irrigation systems, where artificial reservoirs (tanks) were built to store rainwater for agricultural use during dry periods.
- South India:
Tank Irrigation:
South India, characterized by a more erratic rainfall pattern, extensively used tank irrigation systems. Large tanks or artificial reservoirs, known as “tanks” or “ponds,” were constructed to store rainwater. These tanks served as crucial water sources for agriculture.
Well Irrigation:
Wells were commonly dug in South India to access groundwater, providing an additional source of irrigation. The construction of step wells and other innovative water-harvesting structures was also prevalent.
Question 6: How was the Muhgal society divided into caste groups? Explain.
Answer:
The Mughal society was not traditionally divided into caste groups like in some other parts of India. Instead, Mughal social structure was based on a combination of factors such as birth, occupation, and social standing. The society was stratified into various classes, including:
Nobility (Zamindars and Mansabdars):
The highest class comprised the nobility, including zamindars (landlords) and mansabdars (military officials) who held significant positions in the administrative and military hierarchy.
Artisans and Merchants:
The middle class consisted of artisans, merchants, and traders who engaged in various economic activities, contributing to the commercial prosperity of the empire.
Peasantry:
The majority of the population was engaged in agriculture, forming the peasantry. They worked the land and contributed agricultural produce as revenue to the state.
Question 7: There was a direct correlation between caste, poverty and social status, on what basis can we say this?
Answer:
Occupational Hierarchy:
Caste in medieval India was often linked to occupation, with specific professions associated with particular castes. Those engaged in menial or lower-status occupations faced economic challenges, contributing to poverty and lower social status.
Social Stigma:
The caste system imposed social hierarchies and stigmas, affecting individuals’ opportunities and interactions based on their caste. Lower-caste individuals were often marginalized, facing discrimination that hindered their socio-economic mobility.
Limited Access to Resources:
Caste-based discrimination restricted access to resources such as education, land, and economic opportunities for certain castes. This lack of access perpetuated poverty and reinforced the correlation between caste, poverty, and social status in medieval Indian society.
Question 8: What was the chief of panchayat called during this period? How was he elected? Explain.
Answer:
During the medieval period in India, the chief of the panchayat was commonly referred to as the “Headman” or “Sarpanch.” The selection or election of the chief was typically based on a combination of factors:
Hereditary Succession:
In many cases, the position of the chief was hereditary, passing from one generation to the next within a specific family or lineage. This practice ensured continuity but could sometimes lead to issues of competence or inequity.
Merit and Experience:
In some instances, the headman was chosen based on merit, experience, or demonstrated leadership qualities. The community might select an individual who had proven capabilities in managing disputes, understanding local issues, and ensuring fair governance.
Consensus or Popular Support:
The selection process often involved reaching a consensus within the community or obtaining popular support for a particular individual. Community members might discuss and decide on the most suitable candidate to serve as the headman, fostering a sense of collective decision-making.
Question 9: On the basis of what reason can be said that it was difficult to differentiate between cultivators and with during the Mughal period?
Answer:
Similar Dress and Lifestyle:
Cultivators and warriors during the Mughal period often shared similar dress and lifestyle. Both groups might wear similar attire, especially in regions where military officials also engaged in agricultural activities during peacetime.
Dual Occupations:
Many individuals during the Mughal period had dual occupations, being both cultivators and warriors. Peasants might be called upon to serve in the military during times of conflict, blurring the distinction between the two roles.
Flexible Social Mobility:
Social mobility was relatively fluid, and individuals could transition between agricultural and military occupations based on personal choices, economic considerations, or the demands of the time. This flexibility made it challenging to rigidly differentiate between cultivators and warriors in Mughal society.
Question 10: Why commercial forming was given importance during the Mughal period? Discuss.
Answer:
Commercial farming was given importance during the Mughal period for several reasons:
Economic Prosperity:
Commercial farming, focusing on cash crops and trade-oriented agriculture, contributed significantly to economic prosperity. It generated revenue for both the cultivators and the state through the production and sale of commodities.
Trade and Revenue Generation:
The Mughal rulers recognized the economic potential of trade in agricultural goods. By promoting commercial farming, they aimed to boost trade, enhance revenue collection, and strengthen the financial stability of the empire.
Integration into Global Trade Networks:
The Mughal Empire was strategically located along major trade routes, facilitating the integration of its agricultural produce into global trade networks. Cash crops like indigo, cotton, and spices were cultivated for export, contributing to the empire’s economic ties with other regions.
Question 11: Explain why Ain-i-Akbari is an extraordinary book even today?
Answer:
Comprehensive Administrative Insight:
The Ain-i-Akbari, written by Abu’l-Fazl in the 16th century, provides a comprehensive and detailed account of the administrative, cultural, and economic aspects of the Mughal Empire under Akbar’s rule. Even today, it serves as a valuable historical source, offering insights into the governance, policies, and socio-cultural milieu of the time.
Rich Cultural Documentation:
The Ain-i-Akbari goes beyond administrative matters to document various aspects of Mughal culture, including art, literature, and religious practices. This rich cultural documentation makes it an extraordinary resource for historians and scholars interested in understanding the cultural vibrancy of the Mughal era.
Historical Reference for Research:
The book serves as a primary historical reference for researchers, allowing them to delve into the intricacies of Mughal history. Its detailed descriptions and systematic organization of information make it a significant and enduring work that continues to be studied for a deeper understanding of the Mughal period.
Question 12: What did the word “Jangli’ mean in the medieval period.
Answer:
Wild or Forest-Dwelling:
In the medieval period, the word “Jangli” referred to people or communities living in the wild or forested areas. It denoted a lifestyle associated with the wilderness, away from settled or urban environments.
Nomadic or Tribal Connotation:
The term often carried a nomadic or tribal connotation, indicating a way of life characterized by a lack of permanent settlement. Jangli communities were often considered outside the established social structures prevalent in settled societies.
Non-Cultivated or Uninhabited Land:
“Jangli” could also describe areas that were not cultivated or inhabited by settled communities. It implied a sense of untamed or uncultivated land, highlighting the distinction between cultivated and wilderness areas in the medieval context.
Question 13: Describe the functions and the rights of the village’s panchayat in the 16th-17th centuries.
Answer:
Administrative Functions:
The village panchayat in the 16th-17th centuries held administrative responsibilities, including the resolution of local disputes, maintenance of law and order, and the collection and distribution of revenue. The panchayat played a crucial role in the governance of the village, ensuring the smooth functioning of daily affairs.
Land Distribution and Revenue Collection:
One of the primary functions was the equitable distribution of agricultural land among the villagers. The panchayat was involved in overseeing land tenure, resolving disputes related to land, and collecting and managing revenue on behalf of the ruling authority.
Social and Cultural Governance:
The village panchayat also had a role in maintaining social harmony and upholding cultural norms. It addressed issues related to social conduct, marriages, and community rituals. Additionally, it played a role in preserving the local traditions and customs, contributing to the socio-cultural fabric of the village.
Question 14: In the 16th-17th century, cultivation in India was also for profit and trade. Explain.
Answer:
Cash Crop Cultivation:
During the 16th-17th century in India, there was a significant shift towards cultivating cash crops alongside staple foods. Farmers engaged in the production of crops like cotton, indigo, spices, and opium, which were sought after in both local and international markets.
Trade-Oriented Agriculture:
Cultivators recognized the economic benefits of participating in trade. By growing cash crops, they could access markets and engage in commercial exchanges. This trade-oriented agriculture contributed to increased income for farmers, fostering economic prosperity.
Integration into Global Trade Networks:
India, being a part of major trade routes, facilitated the integration of its agricultural produce into global trade networks. The Mughal Empire actively encouraged the cultivation of cash crops for export, linking local agriculture to broader economic trends and contributing to the monetization of the agrarian economy.
Question 15: Describe the three factors responsible for the continuous expansion of agriculture in the 16th-17th centuries.
Answer:
Population Growth:
The continuous expansion of agriculture in the 16th-17th centuries was driven by a significant increase in the population. The growing number of people led to an increased demand for food, prompting the expansion of agricultural lands to meet the rising consumption needs.
Technological Innovations:
Advances in agricultural technology, such as the introduction of new tools, improved irrigation methods, and the adoption of crop rotation, played a crucial role in expanding agricultural productivity. These innovations enhanced the efficiency of farming practices, allowing for increased cultivation and better yields.
Economic Incentives:
Economic factors, including the desire for profit and trade, motivated farmers to expand their agricultural activities. The cultivation of cash crops for both local and international markets provided economic incentives, encouraging farmers to diversify their crops and contribute to the expansion of agriculture as a commercial enterprise.
- LONG QUESTIONS AND ANSWER
Question 1: Explain the role of women in the agrarian society during the Mughal period.
Answer:
During the Mughal period, the role of women in agrarian society was multifaceted, influenced by cultural norms, economic structures, and the social dynamics of the time. Here’s an overview:
Agricultural Labor:
Women actively participated in agricultural activities, contributing to tasks like sowing, transplanting, weeding, and harvesting crops. Their involvement was integral to the agrarian economy, where both men and women worked together in the fields.
Household Responsibilities:
While engaged in agricultural labor, women also managed household responsibilities. This included cooking, childcare, and maintaining the domestic sphere. The dual role of agricultural labor and domestic duties showcased the versatility of women’s contributions to the agrarian society.
Cottage Industries:
Women in agrarian societies often engaged in cottage industries related to agriculture. They were involved in activities like spinning, weaving, and processing agricultural products. This added economic value to the household and contributed to the broader economic activities of the community.
Social and Cultural Functions:
Women played essential roles in social and cultural functions within agrarian communities. They participated in rituals, festivals, and community events, contributing to the cultural cohesion of the village or settlement.
Economic Decision-Making:
In some cases, women had a say in economic decision-making at the household level. They were involved in managing resources, budgeting, and contributing to discussions on agricultural planning.
Land Ownership and Inheritance:
While the majority of landownership was traditionally vested in men, there were instances where women held rights to land, particularly in cases of inheritance. Women could inherit land from their fathers or husbands, allowing them a degree of economic autonomy.
Social Hierarchies and Restrictions:
Social hierarchies and cultural norms often imposed restrictions on women’s mobility and participation in certain activities. While their contributions were significant, societal norms limited their roles, especially in more conservative or hierarchical communities.
Art and Literature:
Some women in agrarian societies actively participated in artistic and literary pursuits. They composed poetry, engaged in handicrafts, and contributed to the cultural richness of their communities.
Question 2: In the Mughal era zamindars were an exploitative class, their relationship with the peasantry had an element of reciprocity, paternalism and patronage. Understanding this contradiction, describe the role of zamindars.
Answer:
Land Revenue Collection:
Zamindars were primarily responsible for collecting land revenue on behalf of the Mughal state. This role could be exploitative, as zamindars had the authority to extract surplus produce from the peasants, often leading to economic hardships for the farming community.
Exploitative Relationship:
The extraction of revenue from the peasantry sometimes resulted in an exploitative relationship. Zamindars, driven by their economic interests, could impose heavy taxes and demand excessive shares of the agricultural produce, contributing to the economic burden on the peasants.
Reciprocal Relationship:
Despite the exploitative aspects, there was a reciprocal dimension to the relationship between zamindars and peasants. Zamindars relied on the agricultural productivity of the peasants for their own wealth and status. Therefore, there was a mutual dependency, with both parties benefiting from a productive agrarian system.
Paternalistic Role:
In some instances, zamindars assumed a paternalistic role in the villages under their jurisdiction. They provided protection, resolved disputes, and offered assistance during times of crisis. This paternalism, while reflecting a sense of social responsibility, was often intertwined with their self-interest in maintaining a stable and productive agrarian community.
Patronage and Local Governance:
Zamindars acted as local patrons and provided patronage to various aspects of village life, including religious institutions, community facilities, and cultural activities. This patronage contributed to the socio-cultural development of the villages under their control.
Military Service to the Mughal Empire:
Many zamindars held military responsibilities and served in the Mughal military. In return for their service, they were granted control over land, which further solidified their economic and social status. This military role added another layer to their relationship with the imperial authority.
Social Status and Prestige:
Zamindars enjoyed a high social status and were often part of the aristocracy. Their prestige was linked to their ability to efficiently manage land revenue collection, maintain order, and contribute to the prosperity of the region.
Local Governance and Dispute Resolution:
Zamindars played a crucial role in local governance, acting as intermediaries between the Mughal state and the rural population. They resolved disputes, maintained law and order, and ensured the smooth functioning of the agrarian economy within their territories.
Question 3: Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazl was the of a large historical, administrative project of classification.
Answer:
Compilation of the “Ain-i-Akbari”:
Abul Fazl, the court historian and close associate of Emperor Akbar, compiled the “Ain-i-Akbari” during the late 16th century. This text, also known as the “Institutes of Akbar” or the “Akbar Nama,” is the third part of the larger project initiated by Akbar.
Historical Context:
Emperor Akbar sought to create a detailed record of the empire under his rule, covering various aspects ranging from administration and economy to culture and society. This project aimed to provide future generations with a comprehensive understanding of the Mughal Empire.
The Larger Project – Akbar Nama:
The larger project, known as the “Akbar Nama,” consisted of three main parts:
- Akbar Nama:
An official biography of Emperor Akbar written by Abul Fazl, providing insights into Akbar’s life, achievements, and policies.
- Ain-i-Akbari:
Comprising the third volume of the “Akbar Nama,” it focused on the administrative and cultural aspects of the Mughal Empire, providing a detailed account of Akbar’s reign.
- Muntakhab al-Tawarikh:
Written by Abul Fazl’s brother, Faizi, this work was a general history of the world up to Akbar’s time.
Administrative Insights:
The “Ain-i-Akbari” offered detailed insights into the administrative machinery of the Mughal Empire. It provided information on revenue administration, military organization, governance, and the administrative divisions of the empire.
Cultural and Socio-economic Aspects:
Abul Fazl’s work went beyond administrative details and delved into the cultural and socio-economic aspects of the Mughal Empire. It covered topics such as art, literature, education, social customs, and the economic conditions prevailing during Akbar’s rule.
Classification and Systematic Approach:
The “Ain-i-Akbari” employed a systematic and classified approach to presenting information. It categorized different subjects, providing a structured and organized account of the diverse aspects of the Mughal Empire.
Influence on Future Historiography:
The comprehensive nature of the “Ain-i-Akbari” and the larger “Akbar Nama” project had a profound impact on the historiography of the Mughal period. It set a precedent for future historians and became a valuable reference for understanding the Mughal Empire.
Legacy:
The “Ain-i-Akbari” remains an invaluable source for scholars, historians, and researchers studying the Mughal period. Its detailed documentation of various aspects of the empire continues to contribute to our understanding of the political, cultural, and administrative dynamics during Akbar’s reign.
Question 4: How did the head of the panchayat and the village regulate the village society? Explain.
Answer:
Dispute Resolution:
The head of the panchayat was responsible for resolving disputes within the village. The panchayat acted as a local judicial body, handling conflicts related to land, property, water usage, and interpersonal disputes. The headman played a pivotal role in mediating and ensuring a fair resolution, maintaining social harmony.
Law and Order:
The head of the panchayat had a role in maintaining law and order within the village. They ensured that individuals adhered to established norms and customs. Any breaches of conduct or violations of community rules were addressed through the panchayat’s regulatory functions, preventing the escalation of conflicts.
Land Distribution and Tenure:
The headman, along with the panchayat, regulated land distribution and tenure. They were involved in allocating agricultural land to individuals within the community, ensuring equitable distribution and preventing land-related disputes. The headman’s role was crucial in overseeing these processes and maintaining agricultural stability.
Collection and Distribution of Revenue:
In some cases, the panchayat, under the guidance of the headman, played a role in the collection and distribution of revenue. This involved managing taxes, levies, or contributions from the villagers for various purposes, contributing to the economic stability of the village.
Social Conduct and Customs:
The headman and the panchayat regulated social conduct and upheld cultural customs within the village. They played a role in enforcing societal norms, overseeing rituals, and ensuring that individuals adhered to established traditions, contributing to the preservation of the community’s cultural identity.
Community Welfare:
The head of the panchayat was often involved in decisions related to community welfare. This could include initiatives for irrigation, the construction of communal facilities, and addressing the overall well-being of the villagers. Decisions were made with the collective interest of the community in mind.
Representation of Village Interests:
The headman served as a representative of the village’s interests in interactions with external authorities or neighboring communities. They played a diplomatic role in negotiations and discussions that could impact the village, ensuring that the community’s concerns were effectively communicated and addressed.
Preservation of Traditions:
The head of the panchayat, along with the entire village, worked towards the preservation of cultural traditions and practices. This included overseeing religious ceremonies, festivals, and other communal activities that contributed to the social and cultural cohesion of the village.
Question 5: What kind of agriculture was there during the cycle of 2 seasons in the 16th and 17th century? Explain by giving examples of different types of crops.
Answer:
- Kharif Season (Monsoon):
Crops Cultivated:
- Rice:
Kharif season was crucial for the cultivation of rice, a major staple in the Indian diet. It required ample water for cultivation, making it suitable for the monsoon season.
- Millets:
Crops like jowar (sorghum), bajra (pearl millet), and ragi (finger millet) were grown during the Kharif season. These millets are known for their resilience in less-favorable conditions.
- Pulses:
Legumes such as urad dal (black gram), moong dal (green gram), and arhar (pigeon pea) were cultivated during the monsoon season.
Agricultural Practices:
Farmers relied on the monsoon rains to irrigate their fields naturally. Rainfed agriculture dominated, and fields were often flooded for the cultivation of rice.
- Regional Variation:
Different regions had variations in crops based on local climate conditions. For instance, in regions with higher rainfall, paddy cultivation was more prevalent.
- Rabi Season (Winter):
Crops Cultivated:
- Wheat:
Rabi season was significant for the cultivation of wheat. The cooler temperatures and shorter days during winter provided favorable conditions for wheat cultivation.
- Barley:
Barley was another major cereal crop grown during the Rabi season, known for its ability to withstand cooler temperatures.
Oilseeds: Crops like mustard and sesame were cultivated during the Rabi season, providing essential oils for cooking and other uses.
- Agricultural Practices:
Irrigation:
Unlike the monsoon season, Rabi crops required additional irrigation. Farmers often used canal water or wells to irrigate their fields during the winter season.
- Crop Rotation:
Crop rotation was a common practice during the Rabi season. Farmers often rotated between different crops to maintain soil fertility and reduce the risk of pests and diseases.
- Diversity in Cultivation:
The Rabi season allowed for the cultivation of a diverse range of crops due to the availability of water and favorable temperatures. This diversity contributed to a balanced diet and agricultural sustainability.
Question 6: Explain the way the forest dwellers lived in the Mughal empire during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Answer:
Semi-Nomadic Lifestyle:
Forest dwellers had a semi-nomadic lifestyle, moving within the forested areas in search of resources. Their settlements were often temporary, allowing them to adapt to changing environmental conditions and access diverse ecosystems.
Dependence on Forest Resources:
Forest dwellers heavily relied on forest resources for their sustenance. They engaged in activities such as hunting, gathering, and fishing to procure food. The forest provided them with a diverse range of plant and animal resources for both subsistence and trade.
Primitive Agricultural Practices:
Some forest dwellers practiced primitive forms of agriculture in clearings within the forest. They cultivated crops suited to the local ecology, adapting to the challenges posed by the forest environment.
Hunter-Gatherer Lifestyle:
Hunting and gathering were integral to the lifestyle of forest dwellers. They hunted game animals for meat, collected fruits, nuts, and edible plants from the forest, and engaged in fishing in nearby water bodies.
Simple Dwellings:
Their dwellings were simple and made from locally available materials. Huts or shelters were constructed using bamboo, thatch, or other natural materials. These structures were designed to be easily assembled and disassembled as they moved within the forest.
Limited Contact with Urban Centers:
Forest dwellers had limited contact with urban centers and the broader socio-political structures of the Mughal Empire. Their way of life existed on the peripheries of the empire, and they often maintained a degree of independence from centralized authority.
Trade and Barter:
Forest dwellers engaged in trade and barter with nearby settled communities. They exchanged forest products, such as medicinal herbs, honey, and animal hides, for goods they did not produce themselves.
Adaptation to Local Environments:
Forest dwellers exhibited a high degree of adaptation to the local environments. Their knowledge of the forest, its flora and fauna, and sustainable resource management practices were crucial for their survival in often challenging conditions.
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