Write in brief
Question 1: Write a note on:
A) Giuseppe Mazzini
Answer:
During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programmed for the unitary Italian Republic. He had also formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ for the dissemination of his goals.
b. Count Camillo de Cavour
Answer:
- Led the movement to unify Italy
- He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat.
- Through a tactful diplomatic alliance engineered by Cavour, Sardini-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
c. The Greek war of independence
Answer:
Greece was under Ottoman rule until the early 19th century. The rise of nationalism in Europe fueled Greek desire for independence, leading to the Greek War of Independence in 1821. Poets and artists portrayed Greece as the cradle of European civilization, rallying support against the Ottoman Empire. Greek nationalists received aid from exiles and sympathetic Western Europeans. The Treaty of Constantinople in 1832 acknowledged Greece’s independence, ending years of struggle.
d) Frankfurt parliament
Answer:
- It was an all-German National assembly formed by middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans belonging to different German regions.
- It was convened on 18 May 1848.
- It was disbanded on 31 May 1849 as it lost support.
e. The role of women in nationalist struggles
Answer:
- Women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
- They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.
- Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations.
Question 2: What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?
Answer:
- The concepts of ‘La Patrie’ and ‘Le Citoyen’ promoted the idea of a unified community with equal rights under a constitution. The tricolor flag replaced the royal standard, new hymns were composed, and martyrs were commemorated in the name of the nation.
- A centralized administration established uniform laws, abolished internal customs duties, and adopted standard weights and measures. French became the common language, discouraging regional dialects. Revolutionaries also declared France’s mission to liberate European peoples from despotism, aiming to help them become nations.
Question 3: Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?
Answer:
Female allegories were invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the nation.
- Marianne, a popular Christian name – underlined the idea of a people’s nation.
- Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolor, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.
- The image of Marianne was marked on coins and stamps.
Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.
Question 4: Briefly trace the process of German unification.
Answer:
- Nationalist sentiments were often mobilized by conservatives for promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe. This can be observed in the process by which Germany and Italy came to be unified as nation-states.
- Middle-class Germans tried to unite the different regions of German Confederation, but their plans were not materialised due to actions of large landowners called Junkers of Prussia. Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France ended in a Prussian victory.
- In Jan 1871, Prussian King William I was proclaimed German emperor Importance was given to modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany.
Question 5: What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?
Answer:
- The Napoleonic Code of 1804 abolished birth-based privileges, ensuring equality before the law and property rights. Napoleon extended this code to regions under French control, simplifying administrative divisions and abolishing feudalism and serfdom in places like the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany.
- Guild restrictions in towns were lifted, and transportation and communication systems were enhanced. This newfound freedom benefited peasants, artisans, workers, and emerging businessmen, who saw the advantages of standardized laws, weights, measures, and a national currency for trade and commerce across regions.
- Discuss
Question 1: Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
Answer:
- In 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle class unfolded alongside uprisings among the poor in Europe. The events in France’s February led to the monarch’s abdication and the establishment of a republic with universal male suffrage.
- In nations like Germany, Italy, and Poland where independent states were lacking, liberal men and women demanded constitutionalism and national unity amid growing unrest. They sought parliamentary principles, including a constitution, freedom of the press, and association.
- The question of women’s political rights divided the liberal movement, despite their active involvement in forming associations, newspapers, and participating in political activities.
Question 2: Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.
Answer:
Language:
- Language played a very important role. After the Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools, and the Russian language was imposed everywhere.
- The Clergy in Poland began using language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instructions. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.
Romanticism:
It was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and science, and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystic feelings. They tried to portray a common cultural past as the basis of a nation.
Folk poetry, folk dance, folk songs:
The true spirit of the nation was popularized through the above means. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was an essential part of nation-building.
Question 3: Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.
Answer:
- Germany and Italy both underwent processes of unification driven by nationalist sentiments. In Germany, middle-class efforts to unify the German Confederation were thwarted by the influence of large landowners known as the ‘Junkers of Prussia’.
- However, Prussia’s victories in three wars against Austria, Denmark, and France ultimately led to the proclamation of William I as German emperor in January 1871. Modernizing currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems became priorities in the newly unified Germany.
- In Italy, Mazzini’s attempts to unify the country through his ‘Young Italy’ movement proved unsuccessful. Instead, the responsibility fell on Sardinia-Piedmont, led by King Victor Emmanuel II, to unify Italian states through warfare.
- The defeat of Austrian forces in 1859, aided by volunteers under Giuseppe Garibaldi, paved the way for Victor Emmanuel II to be proclaimed king of Italy in 1861, following successful campaigns in South Italy against Spanish rulers.
Question 4: How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
Answer:
- The formation of the nation-state was a gradual process rather than a sudden event. In the British Isles, primary identities were based on ethnicity such as English, Welsh, Scot, or Irish.
- The Act of Union between England and Scotland led to the creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, with measures like banning Scottish Gaelic and national dress, resulting in displacement for many Scots. Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the UK in 1801, with English support for Protestant dominance over Catholics.
- Symbols of the new Britain, like the Union Jack and the national anthem, were promoted, while older nations existed as subordinate partners in this union.
Question 5: Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
Answer:
- It was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. The people of the region were broadly known as Slavs.
- A large part was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Gradually, independence was declared from them.
- The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans, together with disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, made this region very explosive.
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