Question 1. Discuss how the changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people:
(i). Shifting cultivators
Answer:
Shifting cultivators practice slash-and-burn agriculture. They cut and burn parts of the forest in rotation. European foresters considered this harmful because the land couldn’t be used for growing trees for railway timber and posed a fire risk. The government found it difficult to calculate taxes, so they banned shifting cultivation. As a result, many communities were forced out of their forest homes. Some changed jobs, while others rebelled.
(ii). Nomadic and pastoralist communities
Answer:
When the British Government reserved forest areas, it had a big impact on nomadic and pastoral communities like the Korava, Karachi, and Yerukula in the Madras Presidency. These communities lost their traditional livelihoods because they relied on the forests. The new forest management policies left them without access to their resources. Some of these groups were even labeled as ‘criminal tribes’ and were compelled to work in factories, mines, and plantations under government control. They had to adapt to new systems and reorganize their lives.
(iii). Firms trading in timber/forest produce
Answer:
Timber firms were granted exclusive trading rights for forest products in specific areas. They made substantial profits, grew wealthier, and gained significant influence. Unfortunately, their newfound power led to indiscriminate tree felling.
(iv). Plantation owners
Answer:
Plantation owners realized they could clear more forest land for their plantations. The British emphasized scientific forestry, which meant focusing on plantations. As a result, European planters received extensive forest areas and profited from them.
(v). Kings/British officials engaged in shikar
Answer:
During colonial rule, forest dwellers lost their right to hunt deer, partridges, and other small animals. Meanwhile, Indian Kings and British officials freely hunted in reserved forests. Unfortunately, this excessive hunting led to the extinction of various species, including tigers, leopards, and wolves. What was once a sport becoming a serious concern for environmentalists and conservators who recognized the need to protect these animals.
Question 2. What are the similarities between colonial management of the forests in Bastar and in Java?
Answer:
The similarities between colonial management of the forests in Bastar and Java were:
- Enacted laws restricted villagers’ forest access.
- Timber cutting allowed only in specified forests under supervision.
- Villagers punished for unauthorized forest entry or product collection.
- Permits issued for entry and collection.
- Both regions had a scientific forestry system.
- Forest Acts caused severe hardship for villagers.
- Everyday practices became illegal.
- Constables and forest guards harassed people.
Question 3. Between 1880 and 1920, forest cover in the Indian subcontinent declined by 9.7million hectares, from 108.6 million hectares to 98.9 million hectares. Discuss the role of the following factors in this decline:
(i). Railways
Answer:
- Railways necessitated forest clearance for track laying.
- Locomotives needed timber for fuel and sleepers.
- British contracts led to indiscriminate tree felling.
(ii). Shipbuilding
Answer:
- By the late 19th century, oak forests in England nearly vanished.
- Timber scarcity affected the Royal Navy.
- To protect imperial power, shipbuilding became crucial.
- Search parties explored India’s forest resources.
- Annual sleeper exports to England intensified tree felling.
- Massive deforestation ensued.
(iii). Agricultural expansion
Answer:
As population grew, so did the demand for food. Peasants expanded cultivated land by clearing forests, providing more acreage for farming. Additionally, there was high demand for cash crops like tea, cotton, jute, and sugar, which were essential for England’s industries.
(iv). Commercial farming
Answer:
The British promoted the cultivation of commercial crops such as jute, sugar, wheat, and cotton. In 19th-century Europe, these crops were in high demand to feed the expanding urban population and supply raw materials for industries. Consequently, extensive forest areas were cleared to create land for commercial farming.
(v). Tea/Coffee plantations
Answer:
The colonial state considered forest land unproductive since it didn’t yield agricultural produce or revenue. To meet Europe’s increasing demand for commodities like tea, coffee, and rubber, large natural forest areas were cleared for plantations. The colonial government allocated vast forest tracts to European planters at low rates, who then converted them into tea or coffee plantations.
(vi). Adivasis and other peasant users
Answer:
Adivasis and other peasant communities rely on forest products and cattle grazing for their livelihood. Forest conservation efforts now involve local villagers, who consider the forests their own and even employ watchmen to protect them.
Question 4. Why are forests affected by wars?
Answer:
During wars, forests are often cut down to meet the needs of war, following a ‘scorched earth policy.’ This prevents the enemy from utilizing this vital resource. Villagers also take advantage of the situation to expand cultivation in the forest.
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