Learning Objective
- The Age of Social Change
- The Russian Revolution
- The February Revolution in Petrograd
- What Changed after October?
- The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR
The Age of Social Change
After the revolution, discussions on individual rights and social power spread globally. Colonial development influenced societal change, but not everyone supported complete transformation. The Russian revolution elevated socialism as a powerful force shaping twentieth-century society.
Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives
Liberals advocated for religious tolerance, representative government, and an independent judiciary. Conservatives accepted change but emphasized respect for the past and gradual transformation.
Industrial Society and Social Change
- The Industrial Revolution brought social and economic changes, leading to new cities and industrial regions. Workers faced long hours and low wages.
- Liberals and radicals emphasized individual freedom and wealth creation. Revolutionaries in France, Italy, Germany, and Russia overthrew monarchies, while nationalists aimed for equal rights and nation-building.
The Coming of Socialism to Europe
- In the mid-nineteenth century, European socialists opposed private property, viewing it as the source of societal problems. Figures like Robert Owen and Louis Blanc advocated for cooperative communities and government support for cooperatives.
- Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels expanded these ideas, emphasizing the overthrow of capitalism and the emergence of a communist future.
Support for Socialism
By the 1870s, socialist ideas spread across Europe, leading to the formation of the Second International. Workers in Germany and England formed associations to improve living and working conditions. The Labour Party and Socialist Party emerged by 1905, championed by socialists and trade unionists.
The Russian Revolution
In the October Revolution of 1917, socialists took over the government in Russia. The fall of the monarchy in February 1917 and the events of October were termed the Russian Revolution.
The Russian Empire in 1914
In 1914, the Russian Empire, under Tsar Nicholas II’s rule, spanned from Finland to the Pacific, including parts of Poland, Ukraine, and Central Asia. The population was predominantly Russian Orthodox.
Economy and Society
In early 20th-century Russia, agriculture dominated the population. St. Petersburg and Moscow were key industrial hubs. Craftsmen and large factories coexisted, with government oversight ensuring fair wages and work hours. Workers, despite divisions, united against unfair conditions. Peasants tilled most land, while nobles held vast properties. Peasants sought nobles’ land.
Socialism in Russia
- Before 1914, political parties in Russia were legal. Socialists established the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party in 1898, adhering to Marx’s ideas. Some Russian socialists saw the periodic land division among peasants as inherently socialist.
- The Socialist Revolutionary Party emerged in 1900, advocating for peasants’ rights and land transfer from nobles. The party’s strategy divided members: Lenin emphasized discipline, while Mensheviks favored openness.
A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution
- In early 20th-century Russia, an autocratic Tsar ruled without parliamentary oversight. The 1905 Revolution, involving Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries, demanded a constitution.
- Workers faced hardships due to rising prices and declining wages. The infamous Bloody Sunday incident sparked the 1905 Revolution. The Tsar reluctantly allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma, but many committees and unions operated unofficially after 1905.
The First World War and the Russian Empire
- In 1914, the First World War erupted between European alliances: Germany, Austria, and Turkey (Central powers) versus France, Britain, and Russia (later joined by Italy and Romania). As the war progressed, the Tsar disregarded consultation with the Duma’s main parties, leading to waning support.
- On the eastern front, the Russian army suffered significant losses against Germany and Austria from 1914 to 1916. To hinder the enemy, Russian forces destroyed crops and buildings. German control of the Baltic Sea isolated Russia from industrial suppliers. By 1916, railway lines deteriorated, and scarcity of bread and flour triggered riots in cities.
The February Revolution in Petrograd
- During the February Revolution in Petrograd, workers’ quarters and factories on the right bank faced food shortages. Women played a crucial role in strikes, which coincided with International Women’s Day. The government imposed a curfew as workers surrounded fashionable areas and official buildings. The Duma was suspended, and demonstrators demanded better conditions.
- Soldiers and workers formed the Petrograd Soviet, while Soviet and Duma leaders established a Provisional Government. Russia’s future would be determined by a constituent assembly elected through universal suffrage, leading to the downfall of the monarchy in February 1917.
After February
- Under the Provisional Government, influential groups included army officials, landowners, and industrialists. Liberals and socialists collaborated toward an elected government, lifting restrictions on public gatherings and associations.
- In April 1917, Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned from exile, advocating his “April Theses”: ending war, transferring land to peasants, and nationalizing banks. He also proposed renaming the Bolshevik Party to the Communist Party.
- Workers’ movements intensified, with factory committees and trade unions gaining strength. As Bolshevik influence grew, the Provisional Government took harsh measures. Meanwhile, peasants, encouraged by Socialist Revolutionary leaders, seized land between July and September 1917.
The Revolution of October 1917
As tensions escalated, Lenin convinced the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to support a socialist takeover. A Military Revolutionary Committee, led by Leon Trotskii, orchestrated the seizure. Supporters captured government offices, and ministers surrendered. The All-Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd endorsed the Bolshevik action.
What Changed after October?
- In 1917, industry and banks were nationalized, with the government assuming ownership and management. Land became social property, allowing peasants to seize noble land. The Bolshevik Party became the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).
- Elections to the Constituent Assembly failed, and it was dismissed. Despite opposition, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany in March 1918. They participated in elections to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, establishing a one-party state. Post-October 1917, artistic experiments flourished, but censorship disillusioned many.
The Civil War
- After the February Revolution, Russia witnessed intense conflict. The Russian Army fragmented, and leaders moved to south Russia, organizing troops against the Bolsheviks (the ‘Reds’). During 1918 and 1919, the Russian Empire saw control shift between the ‘Greens’ (Socialist Revolutionaries) and ‘Whites’ (pro-Tsarists), backed by foreign troops.
- A civil war ensued, with the Bolsheviks eventually gaining dominance by January 1920. In the name of socialism, Bolshevik colonists brutally suppressed local nationalists. The Soviet Union (USSR), created from the former Russian empire in December 1922, granted political autonomy to most non-Russian nationalities.
Making a Socialist Society
During the civil war, centralized planning in the Soviet Union led to economic growth. However, rapid construction resulted in poor working conditions. The government fixed prices to promote industrial growth, and initiatives like schooling systems, university access, and crèches for women workers were introduced. Cheap public health care and model living quarters were also provided.
Stalinism and Collectivization
During the early Planned Economy in Soviet Russia, collectivization of agriculture led to disastrous consequences. The Party enforced collective farming (kolkhoz) on all peasants, resulting in a decline in cattle numbers and poor production. Bad harvests from 1930 to 1933 caused over 4 million deaths. Accusations and imprisonment were widespread by 1939.
The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR
Communist parties formed in various countries, including the Communist Party of Great Britain. The USSR gained global prominence through initiatives like the Conference of the Peoples of the East and the Comintern. By the end of the twentieth century, the USSR’s reputation as a socialist country had waned.
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