Class 12 History Notes: Chapter 4 – Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings: Cultural Developments

Introduction

The period from 600 BCE to 600 CE in Indian history was marked by profound religious, philosophical, and cultural developments. This era witnessed the emergence of new religious traditions, the development of significant philosophical ideas, and the construction of monumental architectural works. Historians have utilized various sources, including texts and physical monuments, to reconstruct the history of this vibrant period.

Sources for Historical Reconstruction

1. Textual Sources:
   • Buddhist Texts: The Buddhist scriptures, particularly the Tripitaka, provide extensive information on the life of Gautama Buddha, his teachings, and the early development of Buddhism. The Tripitaka includes:
     • Vinaya Pitaka: Rules for monastic life.
     • Sutta Pitaka: Discourses of the Buddha.
     • Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical and doctrinal analyses.
   • Jain Texts: Jain literature comprises texts written in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil. Important texts include:
     • Agamas: Jain scriptures detailing religious doctrines and practices.
     • Tattvartha Sutra: A key philosophical text outlining Jain principles.
   • Brahmanical Texts: These include:
     • Vedas: The oldest sacred texts of India, consisting of hymns and rituals.
     • Upanishads: Philosophical texts exploring the nature of reality and the self.
     • Dharmashastras: Legal and ethical texts providing guidelines for societal conduct.
2. Archaeological Sources:
   • Temples and Stupas: Monuments like the Sanchi Stupa, Amaravati Stupa, and various temples offer insights into religious practices and architectural styles. The Sanchi Stupa, for instance, is a significant example of Buddhist architecture and was preserved by rulers such as Shahjahan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum of Bhopal.
   • Monuments and Inscriptions: Inscriptions and monuments, such as those found at Sanchi and Bharhut, provide evidence of religious and cultural practices during this period. These inscriptions often include royal decrees, donations, and other significant events.

Background of Different Religions

1. Emergence of Thinkers:
   • The period from the 6th century BCE saw the rise of influential thinkers across the world, including:
     • Zarathustra (Zoroaster) in Iran, who founded Zoroastrianism.
     • Confucius (Kong Zi) in China, known for his contributions to Confucianism.
     • Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in Greece, who significantly influenced Western philosophy.
     • Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in India, who founded Jainism and Buddhism, respectively.
2. Pre-existing Traditions:
   • Ancient Indian religious and philosophical thought was deeply rooted in Vedic traditions. The Rigveda, composed between 1500 and 1000 BCE, describes various rituals and sacrificial practices. Key practices included:
     • Household Sacrifices: Performed by heads of households to ensure domestic well-being.
     • Elaborate Sacrifices: Such as Rajasuya and Ashvamedha, performed by chiefs and kings with the assistance of Brahmana priests.
3. Philosophical Developments:
   • The Upanishads, composed between 800 and 400 BCE, introduced profound philosophical inquiries into the nature of life, death, and the possibility of rebirth. These texts explored concepts such as Brahman (the ultimate reality) and Atman (the individual soul).

The Message of Mahavira

1. Core Beliefs of Jainism:
   • Animism: Jainism teaches that all elements of the world, including non-living objects, possess life. This belief is reflected in the Jaina principle of ahimsa (non-violence).
   • Karma and Liberation: According to Jain philosophy, the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara) is governed by karma. To achieve liberation (moksha), one must follow a path of asceticism and strict ethical conduct.
2. Jain Vows:
   • Jaina monks and nuns take five major vows:
     • Ahimsa: To abstain from killing any living being.
     • Asteeya: To abstain from stealing.
     • Satya: To abstain from lying.
     • Brahmacharya: To observe celibacy.
     • Aparigraha: To abstain from accumulating possessions.
3. Literary Contributions:
   • Jain scholars produced a significant body of literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil. This literature includes religious texts, commentaries, and philosophical treatises that contribute to the rich cultural heritage of Jainism.

The Buddha: The Enlightened Soul

1. Life and Enlightenment:
   • Gautama Buddha: Born Siddhartha in the Sakya clan around 563 BCE, he was deeply affected by encounters with old age, illness, and death. After renouncing his royal life, he pursued enlightenment and attained it under the Bodhi tree, becoming known as the Buddha (the Enlightened One).
2. Teachings of Buddha:
   • Transience and Soullessness: Buddhism teaches that the world is transient (anicca) and lacks a permanent soul (anatta). Suffering (dukkha) is an inherent aspect of human existence.
   • Path to Liberation: Buddha emphasized the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as means to overcome suffering and achieve Nirvana (liberation from the cycle of rebirth).
3. Followers and Sangha:
   • Sangha: The monastic order established by Buddha included monks (bhikkhus) and later nuns (bhikkhunis). The Sangha played a crucial role in disseminating Buddha’s teachings.
   • Diverse Following: Buddha’s teachings attracted a wide range of followers, including kings, merchants, and common people, providing a universal appeal.

Sculpture and Art During the Buddha Period

1. Symbolism in Art:
   • Early Buddhist art utilized various symbols to represent aspects of Buddha’s life and teachings:
     • Bodhi Tree: Symbolizes Buddha’s enlightenment.
     • Empty Seat: Represents Buddha’s meditation.
     • Stupa: Symbolizes Buddha’s final nirvana.
     • Wheel of Dharma: Represents Buddha’s first sermon at Sarnath.
2. Shalabhanjika and Animal Depictions:
   • Shalabhanjika: An auspicious symbol often depicted in stupa decoration.
   • Animal Figures: Sculptures of animals like elephants, horses, monkeys, and cattle found in stupas reflect the artistic traditions of the period.

New Religious Traditions

1. Emergence of New Sects:
   • Bodhisattva Concept: In Mahayana Buddhism, the Bodhisattva is an enlightened being who chooses to remain in the cycle of rebirth to help others achieve enlightenment.
   • Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism: Hinayana (Theravada) focuses on individual enlightenment, while Mahayana emphasizes compassion and the role of the Bodhisattva.
2. Shaivism and Vaishnavism:
   • Shaivism: Worship of Shiva as the supreme deity, with temples dedicated to Shiva becoming prominent.
   • Vaishnavism: Worship of Vishnu and his avatars, such as Krishna and Rama. The Bhakti movement, emphasizing personal devotion, became central to Vaishnavism.
3. Early Temples:
   • Early Hindu temples were constructed with distinctive architectural features, such as the Shikhara (tower) over the central shrine. Some temples were also carved out of rock, resembling artificial caves.

Interpretation of Sculptures

1. European Scholars’ Views:
   • Greek Influence: 19th-century European scholars noted similarities between Indian Buddhist sculptures and Greek art. However, the interpretation of Indian iconography, including multi-armed deities and hybrid forms, posed challenges.
2. Textual References:
   • Art historians used textual references from Puranas and other sources to interpret the meaning of sculptures. However, many rituals and practices were not recorded in permanent forms, complicating the interpretation.

Stupas: Structures and Significance

1. Chaityas and Stupas:
   • Chaityas: Sacred places associated with Buddha’s life, often housing relics.
   • Stupa Architecture: Comprises several elements:
     • Anda: A semi-circular mound of earth.
     • Harmika: A balcony-like structure at the top.
     • Yasthi: A central mast-like structure.
     • Chhatri: An umbrella-like structure atop the stupa.
2. Major Stupas:
   • Sanchi Stupa: A renowned example of ancient Buddhist architecture, preserved with the support of rulers like Shahjahan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum of Bhopal. Its detailed carvings and architectural features provide insights into early Buddhist art and practice.
   • Amaravati Stupa: Discovered in 1854, this stupa was noted for its sculptural panels. Unfortunately, much of its material was removed, hampering preservation efforts.

Timeline of Key Events

• 468 BCE: Death of Mahavira, marking the end of his earthly life and attainment of Nirvana.
• 563 BCE: Birth of Gautama Buddha in Kapilavastu.
• 487 BCE: The First Buddhist Council held shortly after Buddha’s death.
• 387 BCE: The Second Buddhist Council, convened to address doctrinal disputes.
• 251 BCE: The Third Buddhist Council, organized by Emperor Ashoka to standardize Buddhist teachings and practices.

Important Terms

• Vedic Sanskrit: A specific form of Sanskrit used in the Vedic texts, including hymns and rituals.
• Rajasuya Yajna: A grand ritual performed by kings to affirm their sovereignty.
• Tripitaka: The three main collections of Buddhist scriptures.
• Sangha: The monastic community of Buddhists.
• Tirthankar: A revered teacher in Jainism who has attained enlightenment.
• Stupa: A Buddhist monument originally a mound of earth, later developed into a complex structure symbolizing the Buddha’s presence

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