Learning Objective
- Pastoral Nomads and their Movements
- Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life
- Pastoralism in Africa
Pastoral Nomads and their Movements
In the Mountains
- “In the 19th century, Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir migrated to the mountains in search of pastures for their animals. They followed a cyclical pattern: during winter, they moved to the low hills of the Siwalik range.
- By April, they began their northern march to summer grazing grounds, known as a ‘kafila.’ In September, they returned to their winter base. Similarly, Gaddi shepherds in Himachal Pradesh had a comparable seasonal movement.
- Gujjar cattle herds from the east descended to the Bhabar’s dry forests in winter and ascended to the Bugyals’ high meadows in summer. This cyclic movement was common among Himalayan pastoral communities.”.
On the Plateaus, Plains and Deserts
“In India, pastoralists inhabited diverse regions such as plateaus, plains, and deserts. Let’s explore some key groups:
- Dhangars in Maharashtra: These shepherds, blanket weavers, and buffalo herders followed a seasonal cycle. During monsoons, they stayed in the central plateau of Maharashtra. By October, they harvested bajra and moved westward to Konkan, where they were welcomed by Konkani peasants. After Kharif harvest, they prepared fields for rabi crops.
- Gollas in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh: These sheepherders roamed the dry central plateau, covered with stone and grass. They moved to coastal tracts during the dry season and returned when the rains arrived.
- Banjaras: A well-known group found in various states, including Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
- Raikas in Rajasthan: Desert dwellers, they stayed in their villages during monsoons when pasture was available. By October, they ventured out in search of other pastures and water, returning during the next monsoon…
Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life
“Under colonial rule, pastoralists faced significant changes. Their movements were regulated, grazing lands shrank, and taxes increased. Key factors included:
- Land Revenue: The colonial government aimed to convert grazing lands into cultivated farms for revenue. Waste Land Rules were enacted, transferring uncultivated land to select individuals.
- Forest Acts: These Acts classified forests as ‘Reserved’ (with valuable timber) or ‘Protected,’ restricting pastoralists’ access.
- Criminal Tribes Act: Nomadic communities, including pastoralists, were labeled as ‘criminal’ by birth under this Act.
- Taxation: Grazing taxes were introduced, and tax collection shifted from contractors to direct government collection.”
How Did These Changes Affect the Lives of Pastoralists?
- Due to these measures, there was a shortage of pastures. When grazing lands were taken over and turned into cultivated fields, the available area of pastureland declined.
- As pasturelands disappeared under the plough, the existing animal stock had to feed on whatever grazing land remained. When restrictions were imposed on pastoral movements, grazing lands came to be continuously used and the quality of pastures declined.
- This, in turn, created a further shortage of forage for animals and the deterioration of animal stock.
How Did the Pastoralists Cope with These Changes?
- “Facing colonial changes, pastoralists adapted in diverse ways. Some reduced cattle numbers, while others sought new pastures. After 1947, political boundaries hindered Raikas from grazing camels along the Indus.
- Wealthier pastoralists bought land and settled, abandoning nomadic life. Some became peasants or traders. Poor pastoralists borrowed to survive, and their numbers grew in certain regions. Globally, new laws and settlements reshaped pastoral lives.”
Pastoralism in Africa
In Africa, even today, over 22 million Africans depend on some form of pastoral activity for their livelihood. Like pastoralists in India, the lives of African pastoralists have changed dramatically over the colonial and post-colonial periods.
Where Have the Grazing Lands Gone?
- Before colonial times, Maasai land spanned from northern Kenya to the Tanzanian steppes. In 1885, it was divided by an international boundary between British Kenya and German Tanganyika.
- The Maasai lost their best grazing lands to white settlers, leading to their confinement in a small area. British colonial policies encouraged local peasants to expand cultivation, impacting the Maasai’s economic and political dominance. The loss of resources intensified pressure on their limited land.
The Borders are Closed
In the nineteenth century, African pastoralists roamed freely in search of pastures. However, colonial restrictions altered their lives significantly. White settlers viewed them as dangerous, and new territorial boundaries impacted both pastoral and trading activities.
When Pastures Dry
Traditionally, pastoralists roamed to survive droughts. However, during colonial times, the Maasai were confined to a fixed area, unable to seek pastures. As grazing lands shrank, droughts had a more severe impact.
Not All Were Equally Affected
- In Maasai land, colonial changes affected pastoralists differently. Pre-colonial Maasai society had two groups: elders (rulers) and warriors (protectors).
- British measures appointed chiefs for Maasai sub-groups, imposing restrictions on raiding and warfare. Chiefs survived war and drought, but poor pastoralists lost everything during crises.
- They sought work in towns, doing odd jobs. Social changes disrupted age-based distinctions and created a divide between wealthy and poor pastoralists.
Conclusion
- Pastoral communities worldwide face varied challenges due to modern changes. New laws and borders impact their traditional movement patterns. Droughts led to significant cattle losses.
- Despite this, pastoralists adapt by altering migration routes, reducing livestock, advocating for access to new areas, and demanding involvement in forest and water management.
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